he said, in the end, what if you please, now we need to remember, so to speak, the main architects, in fact, of the final victory, well, there are different versions here, different names are called, but the most common version is that tylern, well, he is also cunning the sheet was decent, he assessed the situation, in general, he actually went over to the side of the allies. and sent to alexander, according to one version, he sent baron vitrolle, who actually held the modest position of inspector of government funds in france at that time farms, this farmer, so to speak, came to alexander with an order from aleraan, and explained to him that, in general, stop fooling around, running after napoleon, when the situation in paris is already such that you can come there.

it’s up to the smaller ones to work, we must take the capital everything, in the end, the final decision was made by alexander himself, and he had quite a lot of difficulty persuading his allies, so to speak, and so on, but nevertheless he insisted on his own, and the coalition went to paris, the battle was short-lived, but bloody, and the russians had the most losses, because they were more eager to attack, in my opinion... there were only 9,000 losses, six of them were russians, they took paris, this is a historical podcast, we continue to understand the personality of emperor alexander i. victory , of course, alexandra was also that napoleon was waiting near moscow, the keys to moscow, did not receive anything, then burned moscow, well, according to one version, napoleon, according to another version, respectively. i think that’s it,

they burned everything there, and it was just chaos that burned it too, the riots themselves were already burning, well, it’s true that kutuz ordered the extinguishing stock to be withdrawn from the country from moscow, burned moscow was on one side of the scales, and alexander rode into paris on a white horse, which was imprudently given at one time by calincourt, the french ambassador, to the enthusiastic . applause from the parisians, he was showered with flowers, he did it not without effort, because the mood in the army was such that it could have happened, i don’t know, the second st. bartholomew’s night, because the prussians’ hatred of the french in the first place was enormous it’s just that when alexander, with these rumors about a possible, possible reprisal, went to the pros king, well, i... i can’t

do anything, so alexander, with his authority, means he managed to avoid a massacre, or what? alexander, in a conversation with ermolov , commented on his entry into paris as follows: well, alexey petrovich, what will they say in st. petersburg now, after all, there really was a time when we, great napoleon, considered me a simpleton, that is, revenge, yes, revenge, for telzit , for the humiliation in telsit, for everything that he roared, that is, revenge was not only before napoleon. but even before those, before his own, before his own, who did not underestimate him, it must be said that alexander , during the coalition war, this coalition war, in the thirteenth and fourteenth years, these companies in the thirteenth and fourteenth years, more than once showed his will when the allies after another defeat, they wanted to make peace with napoleon, to which alexander said, yes, that i cannot hurry every time for 400 le, yes, to help you, and he actually pro...

napoleon could become his son, well, with regency, but he didn’t think so, he was familiar with the sentiments of the bourbons in general , he quite knew their value when the bourbons were restored, but... in order to restore the principle, the principle of legitimism, the principle of a legal monarchy, when the bourbons were restored, toleran looked at all this, maintaining his position, betraying the lives of everyone he could in his activities, he said: “the bourbons did not forget anything and learned nothing, he turned out to be absolutely right, because firstly, 100 days at once, because the bourbons began such a policy , reviewing everything that was done by the french revolution by napoleon, which turned the population of france against themselves in a matter of weeks." yes, that’s it, and then, in fact, the bourbon dynasty ended in 1830, when through their policies they eventually forced the french people to finally rid france of this dynasty. here you mentioned the congress of vienna, because there were, like, two stages, separated

by these 100 days, this historical episode, because what’s interesting is that as soon as napoleon was defeated, it was only after that you got up. you mean not even before 100 days, which means that alexander’s great authority immediately began to decline, this division began there, in the redistribution of borders and other matters, in fact, during the 100 days, when napoleon returned, he discovered the most interesting documents in the archive. which actually proved the conspiracy of france, austria and england against russia. and he immediately sent this document to alexander, hoping, so

to speak, to break the coalition in this way. well, alexander was already a fairly experienced politician, so he didn’t react directly to the provocation, he was just like a tarly writes that...

for some time, the occupation, so to speak, troops, allied troops, russia strengthened its position, since the russian frenchman reshelieu was appointed head of the government. talerirand, as far as i remember, he made such a joke about the fact that this frenchman, so to speak, understands something in the crimea, but in novorossiya, but he doesn’t have a single acquaintance, so to speak, in france, he, that he can even , in fact. reschele was in power until the withdrawal of the allied troops, that is, the withdrawal itself meant that the stability determined in france has arrived, this is proof

of the effectiveness and resolution, including, so to speak, the effectiveness of russian policy in france at that time, so after 100 days of napoleonic. the situation seemed to have turned upside down once again, russia found itself in a different situation, but nevertheless continued, its authority, its power, continued to act, well, at that time it must be said that, in general, we must give it its due, well, of course talk about the extent to which this met russia’s interests, if only alexander behaved like this, and not otherwise, then...

catherine ii at one time, during the partition of poland, the polish territories proper, populated en masse not only by ethnic ukrainian-belarusians under the polish landowners, did not annex the polish territories themselves. this is a historical podcast of russia and the west on the swing of history; today our focus is on the personality of alexander ii and his

politics. alexander, the winner, unlike all other participants in the work at the vienna congress, yes, he understood perfectly well that without resolution of border issues, some kind of division, it was necessary to reward the winners and so on; naturally, any post-war congress, so to speak, cannot do without this.

the bible, they combined into something single, so to speak, and therefore he largely approached the solution of political issues, from the point of view, so to speak, of some kind of christian morality, as he understood it. from here, strictly speaking, the well-known, so-called sacred union arose. in our country, of course, we have heard about it, but i think that rare people have read the text this sacred union, declaration.

the most authoritative monarch in europe, he knew how to charm, that’s his personal trait, he knew how

to win personal sympathy. madame destal, a french writer, said the russian emperor agamemon, the king of kings agamemon, who led the coalition of the greeks in the war of the stroy, a greek hero, a hero of the greek epic, respectively, the russian tsar is handsome and powerful, seemingly merciful, but nevertheless a sacred union. .. in soviet times it was quite naturally called an alliance of monarchs against the peoples, we can say that this is soviet propaganda, but we honor klyuchevsky, klyuchevsky defined the role of alexander as a guard.

tried to build some kind of pan-european house, some kind, establish some kind of, i don’t know, general rules of the game, but this was impossible, simply by definition, because well, besides, first england went ahead, they are bourgeois, so to speak , all sorts of things, and then there were, so to speak, changes in other european countries, but he, as you rightly

say, he did not deal with internal issues, but still dealt with parts.

this coincided, because impostors, in this case, it turned out, it turned out, there were a lot of impostors of alexander pavlovich, they appeared in different provinces, fixed themselves, sometimes, out of drunkenness, they passed themselves off as the tsar, well, it happened, sometimes, like fyodor kuzmich , they gave more solid grounds for rumors, but of course these are all rumors, and of course a serious historian here should say that

alexander really died, the conclusion can be said, perhaps, as follows, simply stating: that for many years russia was perhaps the main player in the international arena in europe, alexander i enjoyed enormous authority for a very long time, but since he did not deal with internal affairs, russia was deprived of a constitution and elementary freedoms. reforms did not gradually lag behind, the principles of the sacred union did not justify themselves, nicholas was already forced to renounce them, there was an uprising of the decembrists demanding these... forms, eh, but it was prepared not so much by the rebels themselves, but, in general, by politics , late politics alexander i. and here one more

thing needs to be said: there is a paradox, alexander i is perhaps the most educated russian emperor. it was a historical podcast, russia-west on the swing of history. pyotr romanov and sergei solovyov were with you. study history with us. you can watch all episodes of the historical podcast russia and the west on the swing of history on... the website of the first channel 1tv.ru. hello everyone, this is schrödinger's podcast, and i am its leading scientific journalist, grigory tarasevich. our guest today is alexander karpov, doctor of physical and mathematical sciences, scientist. tsar of the laboratory of nuclear reactions of the joint institute for nuclear research, hello, today we have such a topic, maybe a little strange for those who are used to

such a strict division in school into physics and chemistry, look, this is our anniversary year, 190 years of mendeleev, 145 years old einstein, each of these two wonderful scientists, a symbol of an entire science, like einstein, a symbol of physics, mendeleev, so the einstein element was obtained as a result of thermonuclear explosions as a byproduct reaction. in general, why does the periodic table

get to somewhere and then stop? well, first of all, we probably need to say what it means in nature, yes, because nature, we usually say that uranus, the element with number 92, is the heaviest in nature, we mean, first of all, the earth , maybe the solar system, well, everything that comes to us ... the earth from somewhere from outer space, in this sense, uranium is indeed considered the heaviest element, which is found in such gigantic quantities macroscopic, and heavier elements, some of them are found on earth, but many are in the universe, where these elements are synthesized continuously, yes, in principle they can be there, the same einstein and fermat, of course, they are in the broadest sense of understanding nature. in the universe, they exist, but we don’t find them on earth, we don’t find them, because on earth we can find those elements or those isotopes of these elements that are either stable or those that

live without decaying long enough to to survive on earth, let me remind you that the earth in general, the solar system is about 4.5 billion years old, and those elements that live billions of years longer are on earth, just like that... uranus, this is the last element, uranus 238, its half-life, also coincidentally, is 4.5 billion years, that is, on earth we still have half of the original amount of uranium, well, as i understand it, getting it in nature is no longer a trivial task, just in case, i’ll remind you where the elements come from, initially after the big bang we had hydrogen and a little helium, nothing else in particular and there wasn’t, well, one crm, yes, but for something even heavier to appear, at least a little bit.

elements, they, like two drops of liquid , approach each other, merge, the nucleus of a heavier element is obtained, and then an atom is formed, that is, as a structure where there is a nucleus and electrons, this is the number one way, this is the way nature produces elements, like you said correctly, up to iron, nickel, something like this, but nature cannot do this heavier than iron, because in order for the stars to burn, reactions synthesis must go with isolation. here they go to iron anyway, heavier than iron they , on the contrary, begin to go with the absorption of energy and therefore the star cannot

move further, it simply goes out and that’s it. the only way that remains is with the help of neutrons, this is the type of decay, beta minus decay, this is when an extra neutron appears in the nucleus, so to speak, which benefits from becoming a proton, then it can do this due to this weak interaction due to beta minus decay, he can do it, flies out also electrin and electron and antineutrino, but they leave the nucleus; in fact, there was a neutron in the nucleus, it became a proton, there was iron. iron with number 26, so an extra neutron decayed, which got into the nucleus, became element number 27, another neutron hit it, it decays, we get element with number 28, nickel, and so on, using this ladder we can you move up and up, these two processes are responsible for the fact that we have the periodic table from iron to uranium, well, to put it more simply, that’s all

what our world consists of, which we... eat, feel, put on our feet and something else, was created either in the depths of the stars, well, here is our carbon, which makes up our body, like oxygen, this is some kind of stars, burning during transnuclear reactions, gave birth to these atoms, what is heavier, this required more serious events such as supernova explosions, if i’m not mistaken, but this is also a stage in the evolution of stars, right? and i read that something as heavy as, for example, gold, here is my ring, and it even happened not from a supernova explosion, but from an even more monstrous event of collision of neutron stars. friends, it’s hard to imagine, here i have a ring, there are atoms of gold in it, in them are nuclei that appeared due to the fact that somewhere in space huge bodies collided with mad energy and compressed other nuclei, such a bit of a fantastic story, but how do i

i understand that you lower this fantastic story to the ground and do it in your laboratory, almost, that is, if you understand what they do in laboratories, then this is the method with neutrons that you are talking about they said when they talked about the ring, and about supernova explosions, collisions, mergers of neutron stars, everything is true, but in this way a person can produce artificial elements from uranium to fermium, einstein and fermium, that is. this is from the ninety -second, starting from the ninety-third to the hundredth, these eight elements can be produced in this same way by irradiating with neutrons, from the hundredth, that is, starting from the 101st element, from mendelevium, the only way that a person can use is reactions mergers, reactions synthesis, that is, in the way in which nature, on the contrary, produces the lightest elements, man, by this only method , can so far produce elements heavier than

a hundredth. again, i’ll simplify a little, that in the laboratory where alexander works, they make reactions that even the collision of neutron stars falls short of. and your laboratory is one of the leaders in the world in the number of new elements created on the periodic table. and if you open the modern version of the periodic table now, you will see names such as, for example, who has we have 104 element. reservefordium reservefordium 105 dubnium, because the institute where alexander works is located in the city of dubna, this element was named after this city, and this decision was international, so what kind of florium do we have, 114, 114 element flerovium in honor of the founder of the laboratory where he works alexander, there is a 15th element of muscovy, and this,

may the residents of the capital forgive me, is not in honor of...

science, this is the nineties, how did this happen? in the nineties, no, in the nineties these elements were not synthesized, but the fact that was done in the nineties, it was a technological breakthrough... and a breakthrough, in fact, there was preparation, preparation of the team, preparation of equipment for those experiments that made it possible to discover the six heaviest elements, this really was, well, well , something in my opinion, it’s a miracle, at that time the laboratory was headed by yuri savakovich oganisyan, he managed to assemble an international team, in addition to the countries that were members of the institute . included american laboratories, the largest american laboratories, livermore and okrich, so we have 116 livermory and 117, tennessee, where the oregon national laboratory is located, were able to concentrate efforts in

order to bring the technology to such a level of sensitivity that experiments that had not been possible for about 15-20 years anywhere in the world could be done. indeed , the technology has been improved hundreds of times, let’s discuss this question: how is a new element, in quotes, made ? photo from the accelerator, and how to make a new element in general, well, look, as we said, in order to make a new element, you need to merge two nuclei, the nucleus is charged, charged... as we remember from the school physics course, charges of the same name repel, therefore positively charged nuclei, they repel each other in order for them to come into contact, then with an even negligible, but

still not zero probability they can merge, they need to be brought to each other, overcoming these repulsive forces, for to do this, they need to be accelerated, accelerated, and to speeds that are, well, about 10%. a magnetic field allows you to rotate a charged particle, in general it should, according to a school physics course, a charged particle in a constant magnetic field moves in a circle, and is accelerated by an electric field, that

is, plus or minus, a charged particle, an ion - previously prepared, flies between plus and minus, accelerates, then we must change the polarity so that next time it accelerates again. didn't slow down, but magnetic field - the resulting trajectory is wrapped in a spiral, that is , as the speed increases, the radius of the orbit grows, and we get spirals, along this spiral the beam moves, and gradually accelerating the electric field, in the end it is brought out, and this is how since these channels that we see on the screen, these channels go to the experimental halls, where there is a separator, a target, after it...

elements were used as a bombarding particle, calcium was used and its very rare from... 48 , and the targets are isotopes of transuranium, that is, artificial elements, because calcium is element number 20 and in order to get element 114, we lack 94 protons, that is, we need to make a target from element number 94, this is plutonium, that is, we take plutonium with number 94, we will make a target out of it in the form of foil, and thin foil, and irradiate it with a beam. 48 s s, as i said, with a very small probability, we will hit the nucleus with a core, and also with a small probability that two nuclei will merge, we will get the core of a new element, which must cool down, because it is in a hot state, and then, after flying out of

the target, it will fly through the separator that we see on the screen, the red thing will hit, yes, it’s a red thing, that is, in front of it, this is just the box where the target is located, it flies out from behind the wall, hits the target, which is located in a plastic box in front of the first red element, and then there are the separator elements. which allow all background events or debris, so to speak, to be separated to the detector to deliver only what we are looking for superheavy atoms elements. and so element 118 was obtained, which received the name aganisyan. so element 118 was obtained, but then we had to take targets from california, that is , in order to get 118, then in order to supplement the twentieth calcium, we had to take california, element number 98, so when they merged... they gave the element with number 118, which today is the heaviest

known, closes the seventh period of the periodic table, well, it is clear that in a simplified form it seems that, oh my god, i took a piece of an element, threw another one at it, it came happiness and glory, but it is clear that this is a complex process, and it is also complex because the heavier the element, the less it lives, in theory. here is element 118, how long does it live in nature, the isotope that we know, it lives a little less than a millisecond, that is, a millisecond is one thousandth of a second, the well-known flood of element 118 lives a little less than 11 seconds, but i understand correctly that there is a hypothesis of the existence of islands of stability, so-called, which suggests that there are far in the region beyond.

it resembles some kind of marine theme, because there is something similar

to a continent, which ends with the eighty-second element lead bismuth, which are the heaviest, stable elements, that is, elements that have a stable isotope, there is a certain peninsula where tori and uranus are located, this is how uranium is depicted as such a beacon, the last element in the natural periodic table and then we see how...

the experiments that were done in dubna at the beginning of the millennium, they just prove that the island of stability exists, we did not get to its center, we have not yet been able to see these most stable isotopes, we have not been able to synthesize them, but we have actually reached the shore of the island of stability, we see that as we take small steps to the side islands, the lifetime is growing - quite quickly, that is, there, well, on average, adding one neutron to

a superheavy element, we increase the lifetime by about 10 times, yeah, this is really a gigantic figure, which indicates what we see here this growth of stability and we we really, really hope that such elements in the very center will actually live for these predicted thousands, maybe millions of years, well, you ’re talking about an increase in the number of neutrons.

was predicted in the region of 170, exactly 160, that's about the element, the only thing is how reliable are these predictions, to say, well, i think that no one will undertake it, because nuclear physics, a science based on models, on our model ideas about the nucleus, the quality the predictions of these models very much depend on how far we have left the known region, from the region of nuclei that we... know experimentally, to hope that these nuclei can live long enough is, well, in general difficult, because well, that’s what is generally considered to determine the end of the periodic table, it is believed that the periodic table will end , in principle, where the stability of the nucleus becomes

negligible, and the nucleus will not live long enough for an atom to form, well , these are fractions of seconds, fractions of seconds are needed in order to.. .the nucleus is overgrown with electrons, that's when we get to such times, then, well, in fact, it will not be an atom, and therefore no longer a chemical element, but the stability of a heavy, very heavy nucleus is actually determined by its stability with respect to fission, but the nucleus is charged, protons are like charged particles, they strive to disintegrate the nucleus, there are nuclear forces that strive to... keep it in a compact form, the confrontation of these two forces determines the stability of very heavy nuclei, and the heavier the nucleus, the more these repulsive forces, coulomb forces, they becoming stronger, more powerful and more powerful and trying to destroy the nucleus faster and faster, it is precisely this

process of nuclear fission that is believed to limit the world of nuclei and the world of atoms, it is predicted that somewhere not very far beyond 120 element... we will just reach values ​​of lifetimes that will not allow us to experimentally register these chemical elements, that is, they will live so short that the nuclei that we simply will not be able to detect them, there are, however, other predictions that this will not be ordinary dense nuclei, this can result in nuclear bubbles, this is the kind of structure when we have not dense like a drop of liquid, but a bubble. where protons are closer to the surface, this will prolong the stability of the nucleus, and nuclei in this form can exist much heavier, there is also such a prediction, but this is still in the field of predictions, well , returning to einstein and mendeleev, how many

years have already passed, how many physicists took steps forward, but do you understand how the core works? an infinite amount is known about the nucleus. but unfortunately we do not know the exact form of nuclear forces, that is , those forces that hold nucleons, protons and neutrons, the constituent nucleus is held together, we know everything about the second coulomb force, yes, but about nuclear forces we do not know the exact mathematical look, we only have nuclear models, that is, a model is, in any case, our idea of ​​the object that... we are studying, it can be better, it can be worse, these models can be very complex and very close to reality, but it's still remain models, any model has limitations, from the point of view of nuclear theory, this is the building block that is missing for nuclear science to become a truly science...