left funds in her will to erect this monument in the park. even then, there was no rush to pop late this. another few years went by before this was unveiled in 1930. few presidents have entered office with more impressive credentials. as illustrated by the gran ite figures sharing space with the executive. they recognize her early career in a courtroom. at a temperament more suited to the bench than the political arena. diplomacy pays tribute to a service as james k. polk, secretary of state. and u.s. minister to the court of st. james. ironically buchanan's gift of conciliation seemed exerted in the white house. by encouraging pro-slavery

forces in kansas, he inadvertently split his own party right down the middle. his narrow reading of the constitution persuaded buchanan that the federal government had no right to prevent it by force. all of which helped to explain why there was no statue of our 15th president in the nation's capitol until a devoted niece willed it almost a century after his presidency. ♪ in 1862 the 37th u.s. congress met. it proved productive as members

passed the homestead act, the pacific railway act and the revenue acts. coming up, "time" magazine editor-at-large talks about 1862 and the 37th u.s. congress. the university of nebraska lincoln hosted this event. it is about 50 minutes. will's probably several hundred people more appropriate to talk about 1862 than i, i feel a little overmatched by the expertise in the room but if you will bear with me, this will be over soon. i would like to thank bob sutton for the very warm introduction and for the park service participation in this really cool event. i was so excited when i heard that rick edwards and the center

for great playing studies had come up with this idea. it couldn't be a more appropriate place to tackle the -- the -- significance of what i believe was arguably the pivotal year of american history. 1862 was certainly the most eventful year in american history. perhaps the most misunderstood. the year in which the civil war became a cataclysm. the federal government became a colasses. and yet, suffered the key losses that led to its doom. it was the year that abraham lincoln established his greatness. it was the death nail of american slavery. and it was the forge of the generals who would eventually win the war. then with names like grant, sherman, sheridan, farrugut, thomas.

the blueprint of modern america, as we have been talking about here, was indelibly inked in 1862 and american continental expanse, rapid communication, networked transportation, widespread education, and industrial might and high finance., thcost of entrance into that future payable in blood and missery was revealed on battlefields from shiloh to sharpsburg, fredericksburg. never has there been a moment in history when so much was all compressed into a little time, wrote charles sumner, as 1862 approached. and never since the founding of the country had so much hinged

on the judgment and the cunning, the timing, and the sheer endurance of just one man. abraham lincoln. as bob was nice enough to say, i would tell that story in a book that will be published this year, "1862 the making -- abram had a lincoln and making of america" and i hope you will all read and enjoy that. and thanks for letting me slip in that plug. today i want to talk about an overlooked branch of the government during that extraordinary year 150 years ago. the 37th congress of the united states was arguably the most productive, the most creative, the most farseeing and the most consequenceal in american history. don't take my word for it. here's john nicolai, the grouchy gatekeeper of lincoln's presidential office. the secretary whose job it was

to say no on behalf of the busiest man in the world and, boy, was he ever good at it. people called him irascible. that was the only one of the names that i can repeat in -- on c-span. when congress adjourned in mid july after about 7 1/2 months in session, having wrenched american history from the dead end of slavery toward the hard, slow course of freedom, having created our modern monetary and fiscal machinery, having established the -- united states as a world class military and naval power, having opened the frontier to homestead settlers and supported their toil through a bureau -- federal bureau of agriculture, having authorized a rail length from the atlantic to the pacific across the same daunting mountain pass that doomed the donner party, and perhaps most visionary of all,

having provided for the world's greatest system of widely available higher education, nioclai pronounced himself delighted to see the members of congress leaving town, quote, i am heartily glad that congress is at last gone. he wrote to his fiancee back home in illinois. and i am sure i shall enjoy the relief from the constant strain of petty cares and troubles which their presence imposes. and yet, even nicol afelt bound to add this. it has done well. and much more than could reasonably have been expected of it.

certainly much more than any former congress has done. so how is one congress in 7 1/2 months able to accomplish so much? it is a natural question for us to ask today living as we do in a time of frequent gridlock on capitol hill. i would offer several explanations for your consideration but first i would say that it was not because politicians in those days were less partisan or more cooperative than they are today. if we think politics is a nasty business now, consider the fact the chairman of the senate foreign relations committee in 1862, charles sumner, of

massachusetts, arrived for that session still bearing the scars of his savaged beating he had receive order the floor of the senate in 1856 when preston brooks of south carolina attacked him with a brass tipped walking stick. hammered his head until the stick broke and then received hundreds of replacement sticks in the mail from all across the south. or that the speaker of the house of representatives in 1862, groh of pennsylvania, had been a central figure in a brawl that broke out in street house chamber late one night in 1858. the occasion was the bitter debate over whether to admit kansas to the union as a slave state. and while -- i will let groh tell his own story, towards 3:00

in the morning, he said, i crossed to the democratic side to consult with john hickman. douglas democrat, also from pennsylvania. one southern democrat shouted -- return to your own side of the house! you have no business over here anyway. this is a free hall. i responded. and everybody has a right to go where he pleases. attempting to seize me by the throat, the representatives said you are a damned black republican puffy. never mind what i am, i retorted, knocking up his hand. month negro driver shall crack his whip over me. i struck you on from the shoulder which i assume means something like that. he fell to the floor and in an instant a number of others standing in the area, in front of the speaker's desk, came rushing up the aisle striking rye and left, one member of congress called by groh a gray-haired quaker from ohio seen in the melee, his hand bleeding. another from pennsylvania grabbed a heavy stone spatoon and marched down the broad aisle

in front of the question questioned later as to his purpose, he said he thought that some one might draw a weapon and if so, he intended to tag him. as one republican rushed in to rescue groh at the center of this, he -- his rescuer managed to punch representative william barksdale of tennessee. barksdale swung around and grabbed the nearest republican he could find who happened to be washburn of the scrappy washburn brothers in congress at which point another of the brothers countered by landing a punch that knocked barksdale's wig off. the sight of the hair piece flying across the chamber caused everyone except barksdale to burst out laughing, and thus

what passed for decorum in the 1850s was restored to the chamber. as for civility, consider ben, bluff ben as he was known, by 1862 everyone in washington had heard wade's opinion, his theory that abraham lincoln's actions could be explained by the simple fact that he was, quote, white trash. he set the tone of debate for 1862 when on new year's eve, he led a delegation from congress to the white house and began his presentation by saying mr. president, you are murdering your country witches. and he was from lincoln's own republican party. i would venture it is also a mistake to image inthat congress in those days attracted a higher caliber of human firepower than today. it is true that there were

remarkable men in that congress. unfortunately, ever course, no women. starting with the great abolitionists and diplomat charles sumner and including justin morrell of vermont and william fessendon of maine and lincoln himself averred that these leaders were nothing special compared to the, quote, great men of america's past, washington, jefferson, madison, or even more recently clay and john quincy adams and daniel webster. the nation was growing in strength, lincoln theorized. but its leaders seem to be shrinking. now i would say the first reason that the congress of 1862 was so

productive was -- i will quote what rick edwards said to me and the lunch line in a different context, you can do certain things in a crisis that you can't do under normal conditions. the opposition democratic party had simply shattered over the issue of secession. and their strongest element, the solidly democratic south, had removed themselves from the federal government. the burst of legislative energy that marked the first half of 1862 had, in fact, been building through many years of epic gridlock. gridlock over the future of the united states. it was as if two teams of brawny athletes had been engaged in a mighty tug of war and one team abruptly dropped its end of the rope. but the achievements of 1862 cannoting explained only by the

fact the republicans suddenly had large majorities in both houses of congress and the -- president. two other factors were also crucial to the equation. the first was extreme necessity. the united states was facing the greatest threat in its history. looking backward, knowing how it all came out, it is easy to forget the extent of that crisis moment. we can hardly imagine as the fortunate heirs to that sacrificial generation of americans just how close our national experiment came to dying in 1862. the breakaway confederate states of america, a would-be nation founded not on ideals of human equality but in the famous words of the confederate vice president alexander stevens, founded upon, quote the great

truth that the negro is not equal to the white man, that slavery subordination to the superior race is his natural and normal condition, confederate states, the first government in the history of the world based upon this great physical, philosophical and moral truth. this enormous threat to the american future covered in expansive land larger than thor tire european territory conquered by napoleon. almost as large as the asia conquered by kahn. this confederacy was in the process of mobilizing a greater percentage of its population as soldiers than any european power

had ever achieved. those troops were led by some of the most experienced military men on the north american continent starting with confederate president jefferson davis. a west point graduate, decorated combat veteran, and former u.s. secretary of war. the confederacy also wielded a powerful economic weapon near total control of the world's cotton supply at a time when textiles were driving the industrial revolution and cotton was perhaps the moss important commodity on earth. the idea that so vast and strong a country could be tamed and forced back into the union by an army of raw volunteers, led by an unschooled frontier lawyer as commander in chief, struck most neutral observers as highly far-fetched if not preposterous. it is in the highest degree

likely that the north will not be able to subdue the south british prime minister lord palmerston counselled his own foreign ministry. what's more, the government in washington at the beginning of 1862 appeared completely overwhelmed. the president was increasingly seen as feckless and insufficient. congress was in the hands of a political party that had never above earned before. the treasury department was broke. federal spending multiplying as never before. $6 would be spent in 1862 for every dollar spent by the government in 1861. northern banks fearing a panic by demoralized investors had closed their exchange windows

in late december of 1861, and were refusing to honor paper money by redeeming it with gold or silver. and if the chances of restoring the union seemed slim, even more remote was the notion that a freely elected government of the people would be strong enough to endure this crisis. from the days of the roman republic, to revolutionary france, no republic had ever survived such a calamity as this. both experienced and history taught the people of 1862 that was so much at risk and is up strong enemies, only a dictatorship was sufficient. in the smoke-choked barrooms of washington's final hotels and at the dinner tables of senior union army officers, in the drawing rooms of washington leading politicians, the idea of a military dictator was endlessly discussed.

george mcclellan, union commander, toyed with theed were, quote, i almost think that where i -- were i to win some success now, i could become dictator. i to win a small success now, i could become dictator. he wrote to his wife and did nothing to discourage the press from assigning him the nickname the young napoleon. he even posed for official photographs with his hand tucked into his tunic. congress moved with such unprecedented speed and to raise the vast sums needed to fight the war because people in 1862 understood what later generations of americans have, i would argue, largely forgotten.

if is you session managed there would be no lornlg cal end to it. we see the civil war so much as a north versus south issue that we imagined other possible results, always revolving around two side by side nations. that's not what they were looking at. there was nothing inherently stable about two nations north and south neatly dividing the resources they had once shared. if the south was successful, more fault lines were likely to open. the bonds that held the old northwest of ohio, indiana, illinois, iowa. michigan, wisconsin, minnesota. the connection between that part

of the country to new england was extremely tenuous. if the union shattered into pieces to the east of the mississippi, there would be little or nothing to connect any of those pieces to the great treasure lands of the west. if there was one division of the states, will there not be more than one? a leading southern unionist asked. wouldn't north america end up as fragmented and war-prone as europe. just as they understand the need to preserve what the founder his begun, the members of the 37th congress shared an idea of a future that they wanted to build. i think this is the second crucial point to understand about their productivity.

this was a vision that hammered out in the decades following the explorations of lewis and clark up the road from here. one legacy of the louisiana purchase was a long and bitter, but ultimately quite fruitful argument over how to make use of the vast rich lands seized by the europeans and added to the young american republic. in a very real sense, the fight over these western lands set the fuse on the civil war itself as the competing systems and the slave economy versus free labor hatched irreconcilable schemes and plans for exploiting this great boundy.

when the south tried to break away, when the southern members of congress removed themselves from the picture, the remaining members of the body had a plan of action. ready to put into effect an agenda they had built over the 1850s that looked to the long future of a nation if only it could survive the next few months. they pushed it through congress even as the war raged around them. what was the nature of that future? first, that it would be free. the 37th congress passed the law that ended slavery. and ordered the the confisication of all the slaves

held in rebel territory. it's the eventual triumph of the 13th amendment. the future that they envision would belong to a middle class of farmers and enterprises. an ideal reflected in the homestead act and more importantly in justin morals act creating america's remark believe system of land grant colleges and universities of which this fine institution is just one example. nothing the congress did better symbolized that for the looking visionary nature of that agenda than the realization that the american future would depend on the innovative power and social mobility unleashed by the

widespread availability of higher education and applied research. having given them all that credit, i can report that the 37th congress was distinguished by some of the most ramp and corruption in history. the overnight expansion into a spending machine drew every variety of profit ear and opportunist in the country that went to the overcrowded capital on the potomac. no enterprise was more sulleyed than the much dreamed of enticed among many,orter.

many others. thomas ewing jr. was the first chief justice of the kansas supreme court. ewing went to washington in february of 1862 on behalf of a company that wanted to build the transcontinental reporter. ewing and his partners had never built a single foot of a railroad. they also did not own any land, but they didn't let either of these impediments stope them. relying on his sterling connection, ewing's father was a former senator and cabinet secretary. his foster brother was william t sherman. one of his cousins was the future speaker of the house, james g blaine. ewing arrived in washington and began spreading around some four

million in bribes. that number is not adjusted for inflation. that was four million and he promised at least 100,000 acres of land who would help his project. in this way, the ewing operation called the levin worth and western railroad first managed to push through a treaty ratified by the senate that would seize lands belong to the delaware and indian tribes and give them to the railroad to sell to finance their construction. they moved to set the route that

st. louis to denver straight 3 levin worth. after denver, the plans sort of got fuzzy. there was something just to the west of denver they had not figured out how to deal with. at least 12 members of congress received shares in the lpnw totalling $1.5 million while the secretary of the interior and assistant secretary and the commissioner of indian affairs collected promises of more than $1 million combined. ultimately thomas ewing was partially thwarted with help from the lawyer that was persuaded that the natural route for the