joseph jenkins roberts center for african diaspora. she earned her ph.d. in history at the college of william and mary. she's written several books on the african-american history of hampton roads and is now co-authoring a history on the black community of norfolk. many of you know cassandra from the 2010 virginia civil war sus question centennial conference, held at norfolk state on slavery and the civil war. the tough stuff of american history and memory. she was the director of that conference. i first met cassandra at a conference in 2006 at ft. monroe. it was interesting, that conference was co-hosted by the museum of the confederacy and the united states army. i think it was the first time that those two were ever allies in an effort. [ laughter ] and she gave a brilliant

presentation about how the concept of fleeing slaves coming into union lines came to be known as contraband of war. she is now a member of our historians advisory committee. she's helping us create the exhibits for the new civil war museum. this is cassandra's first time to address an american civil war museum audience. and we are very pleased to have her with us. ladies and gentlemen, dr. cassandra newby-alexander. [ applause ] >> good morning. as we commemorate the person of the year 1865 i offer my nomination for your consideration as the person who has done more to define that year than anyone else. 1865 was the last year of the

civil war. it was the culmination of four very bloody years that changed america. and while many deny this reality, my person of the year was the reason america had actually been to war. furthermore, at the conclusion of the war, issues involving my person of the year will continue to consume the attention of the nation and result in the passage of a series of united states constitutional amendments that forever changed the relationship between the federal government and its citizens. my nomination rather than a single person includes men and women, adults and children who with a ka kaf any of voices that embodied the essence of the american promise.

freedom. some said this word as a whisper, or prayer. while others said it as a declaration of their primal scream. but all said it. and embodied the word freedom. the sweetness of freedom. the horror of freedom. the uncertainty of freedom. the joy of freedom. my nomination is the freed men. who were these seekers of freedom? these freed men and freed women. did they know what freedom entailed? did they care? because the possibility of freedom meant something better than the life of enslavement that often separated them from their families, forced them to work until their deaths and always involved punishment for the slightest insult, infraction

or whim. so facing an uncertain state they came by the tens by the hundreds, and finally by the thousands to union lines. they brought with them a few household items bundles of food and clothing. a few household item bundles of food and clothing but often the clothe ons their backs. sometimes there were hundreds who trekked down to fort monroe with only a few successfully arriving like 200 who left richmond in 1862 with only three arriving in the gates of the ford. coming with hope and an expectation of freedom, they faced many of the same expectations from union firms

that officials that existed during their enslavement. the expectation of work and to work hard for rations and food and clothing. you see these freedom seekers did not sit idly by and wait for freedom. they took it through action, and force. apply the ideals of the declaration of independence to them and their children. when they did the nation began to shed itself of the shackles of hypocrisy and move toward a system of inclusion. it would take another hundred years for that to happen but that's another story. shortly after this war major general benjamin butler was

appointed commander of fort monroe. he quickly pressed to extend union control to hampton and new port news and sent a detachment of union soldiers to that area. they then would later move to the area of north carolina. that night three enslaved men made their way to the union army's expedition. the next morning they were

interrogated. they explained why they were there. they believed the union government should provide them sanctuary since they were trying to support the union. eventually, butler agreed with the argument and changed the course of the war. initially, it was just a small trickle then it became a flood and then a tidal wave. butler's actions was not just a humanitarian gesture. he planned to employ in exchange for food and supplies to help the union troops. butler's goal did not matter. he had plan. word quickly spread and thousands of these freedom

seekers fled to fort monroe and to all places where the union army was in the south. those men often didn't come alone. some arrived with their entire families necessitating a system of organize that would employ all of these individuals. although they were compensated for their work the $10 wage was not paid to the worker but placed in a general fund to be used for rationing provisions and for the worker and his family making the system rife for abuse. some may say these contrabands should have been happy to be

paid at all. this was a whole new ball game. african-american slaved were determined to change their world and provide new opportunities for their families. future freed men did not take abuses in silence. they complained about being exploited whether it was by slave holders or by union officials. one such case it was reported by ama missionary louis c. lockwood that one black man said he worked for the government since the first of july expecting money for his efforts another said they say we are able bodied men. we were to get $8 a month and

the women $4. only we was to be allowed $1 a month to help the poor and the old which we didn't regret. $1 for the sick and another dollar for general purposes. we don't exactly know who this general was but it appears it was a heap of them. everything we had went to pay those generals and we got nothing. always pushing that proverbial envelope. some did not take their complaints to a few local officials. williams davis a contraband took his to a meeting organized by the american missionary association and the national freedman's association. davis gave a powerful argument about the need to provide

substantive assistance to the contraband because they're efforts to be free and come part of american civic like were essential. he was among the first group who fled with his family. his efforts to get land and become a farmer and to get educated was just one example of all of the efforts by most of his people who were designated as contraband. he said it's absurd to say the neg negro needed a master to take care of him. he said we were busy taking care of our masters.

the result was they distributed where ever needed. it was a shift in how these relief agencies distributed food and clothing, books and other things. the future freedman was beginning to transform a nation h drop from the ration roles all the families who refused to

work. the welfare of their families would be at stake. at other times, african americans were forced to work at the point of a gun. a number of black women were rounded up and ordered to do cleaning work with the promise that they would be paid at the end of the day. when finished, these women did not receive promised wages. end of the day. when finished, these women did not receive the promised wages. it's no wonder that blacks began to wonder what union liberation really meant. undaunt ed undaunted undaunted it forced a shift. it did not matter to these future freed men because they

used their numbers and their insistence on obtaining freedom to force the nation to change. in a letter by the missionary lucy chase to a friend ana lowell up in massachusetts, her friend to see passion arriving in cities like norfolk and other places. what was going on? she said that these refugees tumbled amongst boxes, beds tables and tubs. the little ones with shining eyes and frolicsome ways singing jubilee for the whole community while the more anxious parents sit on table corners or lean against brick walls to unset eltled in the face of an uncertain future. she said my sister-in-law saw

many reunions yesterday. one woman came to her leading a girl of 18 and said see my daughter. they sold her away from me when she was just old enough to rock a cradle and see how they done her bad. see how they've cut her up from head to her feet. she is scarred just as you see her now. regardless of the legal restrictions of the emancipation proclamation that limited freedom only to enslaved people in confederate territory these enslaved people who were in union occupied territories took their freedom into their own hands and continued to flee to union lines and to force their way into freedom. the first objective was to reconstitute their families. next they sought gainful employment or land on which to farm. then and most importantly, they

sought education because it was through education they would understand how to protect themselves in court and how to exercise the power of their voice and how to learn to be free. some army officials recognized the power that could be exercised by these future freed men and bemoaned how the contributions were sometimes ignored. union captain c.b. wilder observed that many enslaved women were fearless and extremely helpful to the union. he recalled the story of mary lovest from norfolk who had stolen the plans for the css virginia and carried those plans to union officials. wilder said this came from the colored people and they got no

credit for it. sadly, the historical leading standing of blacks as property made the future freed man vulnerable to ongoing abuses. reports reached general butler upon his return in 1863 for example, that a colonel john a. stationed at craney island was daily making arrests of the colored citizens and in and about norfolk and ports smith for the purpose of compelling them to volunteer in the u.s. service. he found out these men were taken from their ordinary and necessary advocations, from their houses workshops, churches and schools and carried to the island against their will where they are urged to enlist and if they refused they were

subjected to torture to subject them to do so. some were forced to carry a ball weighing anywhere between 35 and 50 pounds for several hours in succession. fact one of missionaries, h.l. beels noted these outrageous actions caused much suffering among the poor families dependent on the daily wages of these men for support and it was undermining an ultimately destroying the loyal sentiment that these people had towards the union government. they asked to see the pass and tore it up. he was ordered to engist which he refused. as punishment they took him to the guard house where he had to tote this heavy ball. moses riddick another freedman

testified he was at home when a man from the 5th new york voluntary infantry named john smith knocked on his door and told him he had to enlist in the army. he informed he he had already planned on enlisting and was on the sick list and would do so when he was well. smith told him you shall go now or i will blow your brains out. i've got orders to do so. i asked if i could go in and get my coat and i made my escape by jumping out the back window. reverend beels reported that mills benton and robert johnson were arrested also by colonel nelson's men and forced to enlist. he said both had been suffering at home from an ill condition.

there were so many taken. owen said they took the 15-year-old away. i took it home. the boy has never come back. president abraham lincoln recommended nelson's appointment after he created quite a ruccus down in louisiana with a louisiana native guard. he had been forced out after insulting many of the free blacks in that regimen and impressing men into service. within a few months of course, similar accusations arose in the norfolk area and eventually nelson was removed because it was proven to be correct.

the men who were enlisted in the military. many wives of these men such as rachel copeland, deliah carter who lived in slab town which was just outside of fort monroe or others rosa brooks and hannah beasley who lived at camp hamilton. they had husbands serving in the 1st, 10th 37th and 38th united states colored troops. these women and children survived on small portions of army rations and crowded into makeshift habitations. they were provided assistance as

long as a male member of their family continued to serve in the military. however, if they died or wounded this battle and had to leave the military the assistance would only continue for six months. yet these families persevered. in february 1864 he wrote he hoped his wife was enjoying good health. he asked her to get a pass and come see me if you can. let me know. he ended his letter with tag line, i still remain your

husband until death. in august of 1865, he was dead and his widow elizabeth wright appeared before the counselor to prove with letters and affidavits that she was the widow of rufus wright. wright's widow had not received any pay from the government following the passing of her husband. it also proved the importance of education. throughout the civil war the con sent of emancipation took many forms whether it was the temporary designation as contrabands of war, protection under the emancipation proclamation or freedom following the ratification of

the 13th amendment. interestingly following the war, the designation of freedman was applyied to all african-americans whether they had been free blacks or whether they had been enslaved during the war. this lumping together of men and women, adults and children into the same category was much what the knownomanclature slave men. african-americans persevered and redefined who they were. the changing designations would reshape america and its legal structure. acceptance of this new status by whites was a different story. free people were expected to continue their labor's uninterested even after the war because of fears that they would somehow become a burden on the

coffers of government. free people left their former plantations and moved into the cities in search of family members, employment and a whole new life. even after the war expectations, as i said were high for this continuous black labor with former slave holders refusing to comply with the defeat of the confederacy or the passage of the 13th amendment. john berry who now resided in alexandria had been enslaved on benjamin triplet's plantation. he complained when he went to the plantation to retrieve his wife and children ages 4 to 14, triplet was angry that berry joined the union army to fight

against him. he maintained that quote the war was not over and you are not free. when berry requested triplet to surrender the family he said nobody should take them away and if anybody comes into my yard i will shoot them. despite these challenges free people established new begins for themselves and their children. joseph johnson, a teacher representing a group of freed people in halls hill, virginia wrote to general o.o. howard, commissioner of the freedmans bureau in august of 1865 requesting help to secure homes. they adopted a resolution that shows the importance of owning homes and establishing schools for themselves and their children. they said quote, we feel it to be very important that we obtain homes. owning our shelters and the ground that we may raise fruit

trees concerning which our children can say these are ours. also that we may regularly educate our children, having our own schoolhouse in a central location and also maintain public worship so we may be an established and growing people and be respected and recognized by all loyal people as welcome and efficient citizens of these united states which is now our country made emphatically so by the blood of our brethren recently shed to save our country. it framed and perpetuated the stereotype of black dependency. it was written that blacks would

die out because they were incapable of supporting themselves without white supervision. so long was this position held that it became a certainty among most white americans north and south. it was not surprising that the union army and later the freedmans bureau incorporated those believes into policy for freed african-americans. the issues were complicated and varied. there was no patience for those wanting to breathe their first air of freedom. little tolerance for freed people wanting to start afresh in a new state and locale. yet these freed men persevered

establishing homes for themselves businesses for their communities and schools for their children. 1865 would be the culmination of these actions. the majority of children of families who especially moved to urban areas were enrolled this schools. many had become graduates. there was a growing professional class that emerged from the normal schools, from the colleges, the universities, the law schools, the medical schools and the teacher colleges.

businesses were established that included banks savings and savings and loans, construction companies, department stores, insurance companies, groceries and the list goes on and on and on. published in 1978 almost 115 years after emancipation, mayo angelou wrote a poem that encompassed this. it also explained why i believe the freed men so clearly represents the hopes and dreams of all of our people. i would like to read you just an excerpt of that poem. you may write me down in history

with your bitter twisted lies. you may trod me in the very dirt but still like dust i rise. does my sassiness upset you? why are you beset with gloom? because i walk like i've got oil wells pumping in my living room. do you want to see my broken, bowed head, lowered eyes. shoulders falling down tear drops. does my haughtiness offend you? don't you take it off hard because i laugh like i've got gold mines digging in my backyard. you may shoot me with your words, cut me with your eyes still like air i rise. out of the huds of history shame i raise. up from the pass that's rooted in pain i'll rise. i'm a black ocean leaping wide,

welling and swelling i bear in the tide. leaving behind nights of terror and fear i rise. into a daybreak that's wonderously clear, i rise. bringing the gifts that my an ancestors gave, i am the dream and the hope of the slave. i rise. i rise, and may i add the freed men, person of the year in 1865 they rise. thank you. [ applause ] >> i can take questions.

>> would you expand a little bit on the sheltering of the freed men in fort monroe? >> fort monroe was designed to really only accommodate the soldiers and when the numbers went from 6,000 to 12,000 at the start of the war, the soldiers couldn't be accommodated at the ford which is why they established camp hamilton. when the numbers became 100 and became a thousands and more there were makeshift camps that were established right outside of the gates. if you go into the area called feebus. used to be a small town that's where slab town was. that's where african-americans began to establish makeshift

houses homes sometimes tents. most of the time they would take the wood the burned wood from hampton village that was destroyed and create these makeshift houses and later on with them, i would say ten years, there were actually very nicely constructed houses replacing those makeshift houses all built by these african-americans. later on and by later on i mean a few months later you would see the grand contraband camp rise up in the ashes of hampton village. right in downtown hampton that's where the grand contraband camp which was the larger one was locate located. part of the problem was access to fresh water. in fact, it wouldn't be until the 1880s and 90s they would finally resolve that issue of providing adequate fresh water to everyone there.

it was important to the army that they remove them to an area that had fresh water. it was probably and they suffered quite a bit at these camps but probably at the slab town and grand contraband camps that suffered a lower rate of mortality than some of these other contrabands camps especially in and around washington, d.c. that had mortality rate that sometimes range from 10 to 100 people per day dying in these camps because of dysentery other kinds of diseases, inadequate food, polluted water those kinds of things.

there were some who slowly began to leave and we would see communities of people starting to form in new york and philadelphia and other places but the numbers were not as large as people have made them out. most people went to the cities. in richmond so many people are trying to make their way into city of richmond after the war that the army actually set up stop points pfxvs

and if they did, what would have been the reaction of the union commanders as they came in. >> very interesting question. that's something historians haven't talked that much about. those who actually left the plantations in the border states left to enlist in the military. you really wouldn't see large numbers starting to leave until after the emancipation proclamation was passed and not until 1864 when the majority of the united states regiments were being formed. then you look at the census records and you see howdy verse many of these regiments were.

people from all over the south were enlisting. i've been surprised at some of the units that were formed in virginia had people from delaware massachusetts, from new york and other places in those places. i very much. [applause] >> each year, civil war museum s historians to nominate those who think time magazine would have chosen it had established in that year. by adopting

guerilla warfare tactics saved them. this is just under 40 minutes. he's boyd professor of history in louisiana state university. he served on the board of trustees and on the national advisory board of the american civil war center. he's a two time recipient of the jefferson davis award for the best book published on the era of the civil war. he thus had a long and close relationship with both of the institutions that are now the american civil