number 10. he died in a tool. i said this will have a good ending. perfectbe treating -- each reading. i didn't know my life would change when i cracked open that book. announcer: watch the entire program on sunday at 10:45 eastern. on c-span3 is american history tv. next on reel america, "nasa highlights 1965" documents the numerous projects during 1965, flybying the mariner 4 and imaging of mars. the mapping of the moon searching for landing sites and

the advancement of the manned space program. ♪ >> 1965 was a successful year for space science. there was the spectacular results of the ranger and mariner missions, objectives are to explore the moon, planets, and the interplanetary environment of our solar system. to investigate the sun. it's relationship to earth. the geological property of the earth. the physical nature of the universe.

to discover the effect of the biological makeup of space and its effect on earth lifeforms and to search for and analyze extraterrestrial life. to develop experiments for manned spaceflight, analyze the capabilities of trained astronauts as sensors and evaluators. to provide pre-doctoral training for scientists and engineers and grants for space science research projects in laboratory facilities to best use university research for the national space effort. to develop and manage launch vehicle systems upon which reliable transportation to space depends. to conduct research and development on meteorological and satellite systems. to develop and apply technology to other practical satellite applications, such as

communications and navigation's. in april 1965, and a compliment into medications was the turnover of -- for years. -- cincom one and centcom to to the department of defense. the basic data plan for them has been largely collected. launched in was 1964, and maneuvered into the world's first station there he orbit at an altitude of 52,000 miles over the pacific. syncom two was launched into earth's first synchronized orbit in 1963, moved in 1965 to a new station above the indian ocean. now, both communications satellites are serving the apartment of defense for voice and the teletype to southeast asia. experiments in air to ground communications by satellite were

successfully conducted in january between a ground station and a pan american airways craft in flight over the pacific. the two-way airborne terminals communicated with a california ground station from a position as far away as hong kong. also in 1965, communications for gemini manned space flights were routed through syncom 3. communications satellite was launched in april on a reimbursement basis. the payload was a direct outgrowth of syncom development. the first "earlybird" was inaugurated in april. it made possible the live television transmission of the gemini 6 and gemini 7 recovery. this transportable ground

station was developed for nasa's first communication satellite program. in 1965, the first prototype model of an application's technology satellite was produced under the direction of goddard space flight center. this program is a major nasa effort in communications, navigations, and meteorology. it is concerned with the advanced technology of gravity gradient and spin stabilized orientation systems. it will also be used for antenna research and the determination of environmental impact on components. technology experiments for the first flights have been collected and the initial flight is scheduled for 1966. the most significant accomplishment of the meteorological program in 1969 ix has been

used to launch successful satellites in 34 attempts. this improves upon the remarkable record of 22 in a row. once in orbit, ground command triggered the delicate turning ix oner that puts tiros its side. it was in orbit over earth so it can photograph the entire earth each day. the satellite was programmed to take 400 pictures daily. each day's coverage is converted into a map that shows the storms all over the world. these are made available to weather forecasters for their analyses. the wheel configuration of tiros ix will be used for the weather bureau.

this system will be known. some will carry cameras for automatic picture transmissions. others will carry an advanced weather column camera with fixed storage to send back global operations to the united states. in july, nasa launched tiros x for the united states weather bureau. joins vii, tiros roman numeral eight, and ix in space, marking the first time 4 weather satellites were operating simultaneously. in september, all four storm trackers -- tiros vii entered its third year of operation, four times the expected lifetime of a weather satellite. another use was whether muttering before and after the

-- was weather monitoring before and after the eight date gemini spaceflight. v the mission was shortened by one orbit because of oncoming storms. nimbus is now the focus. work on the second flight module continued throughout 1965 under the direction of goddard space flight center. scheduled for launching in 1966, nimbus will carry daytime and nighttime camera systems. an attractive feature will be the ability of small, relatively inexpensive ground stations to receive live pictures during the daytime and infrared pictures at night. 1965 has seen multiple accomplishments in the lunar and planetary programs. include the completion of

the successful mariner mission to mars, the first flight of the pioneer series of interplanetary missions, and the success of the last 2 ranger photographic missions to the moon. these pictures sent back from the ranger vii mission made modifications to earlier theories about the moon, resulting in lunar maps and models of accuracy and scale to within a few feet. the area within the see of clouds and photographs was renamed "the lone sea." ranger viii target areas were reevaluated. it was launched in february from kennedy. agena has provided a vehicle system.

since the beginning of 1964, 10 out of 11 launches were successful. not the least of the object lives -- they ranger system is key to the objectives. the key to these was the accurate guidance and command system and camera technology. these systems performed at their peak when ranger was launched of ix successfully in march. as it approached the moon, it sent back from six cameras more than 58 pictures of the lunar -- 5800 pictures of the lunar surface. here's a sped up sample. ranger marked the completion of ix a successful program managed by jet propulsion laboratory for nasa. we learned a great deal from this program about the topography of several lunar areas. for example, we know that the lunar surface within a crater is remarkably similar to others.

photographed by earlier rangers. if firm enough, these surfaces may be suitable for the landing of the unmanned surveyor and the manned lunar excursion module. the craters suggest present or past volcanic activities. the spectacular final photos of the ranger ix approach were seen live on television by millions of americans as they were taken. they had a resolution of better than one foot just before ranger impacted within a mile of the ix target. continuing study of the moon's topography will be accomplished by lunar orbiter. in 1965, a prototype model was completed and began testing. the first lunar orbiter flight is scheduled for 1966 using an atlas agena-d launch vehicle.

photographic reconnaissance will be a fine task and there is considerable flexibility in the way the photographs can be tied together. last year, 10 potential areas were selected for coverage by the first mission. they include examples of all the major types of the moon's of theiror assessment suitability for spacecraft landing. each is 22 miles wide and 58 miles long. of the 10 sites are within the 9 area proposed for apollo 's manned landing. lunar orbiter will approach within 29 miles of the lunar surface at perigee and remain in orbit for a year. idealhould make it an vehicle to obtain scientific and photographic coverage. the end of the year saw the

first flight model of surveyor in final system test prior to shipment to cape kennedy. surveyor is our most complex unmanned lunar exploration project. it is designed to make a soft landing on the moon and provide a wide friday of scientific data -- wide variety of scientific data and survey areas on the lunar surface as possible landing sites for manned missions. this flight model surveyor in -- and the prototype which preceded it underwent , qualification testing throughout 1965 under the management of the jet propulsion laboratory. the spacecraft was subjected to vibrations tests. it went into a simulated space environment in the solar thermal vacuum chamber. with its ground support equipment the prototype was , shipped to cape kennedy. test outwas used to

launch facilities and procedures. it was tested in the california desert, where it underwent compatibility testing with nasa's deep space network. on november 22, a most significant milestone was passed in the surveyor program. a test vehicle performed successfully in a combined tether and descent test in new mexico. the objective was to verify the soft landing capability of the surveyor spacecraft and evaluate critical flight parameters in the velocity center, white control, and engine subsystems. you will note that once the vehicle was released from the balloon, there was no discernible displacement in pitch, yaw, or roll. this stable dissent attitude was maintained by the constantly varying thrust output of the

engine, responding to the commands of the flight control subsystem. after release, the vehicle automatically adjusted to be planned dissent directory at a constant descent directory and a constant descent rate. the constant descent rate can be seen as the stabilizing chute failed to the side of the vehicle. effect, the spacecraft made a simulated lunar surface landing and was recovered by parachute at an altitude of 500 feet. from this first successful performance of the model, we can conclude that the design is adequate to guide a spacecraft to a gentle landing on the moon. the system will undergo further testing. many problems, managerial and technical, were overcome during this year of qualification and test. now, a surveyor spacecraft is nearing acceptance for the first

mission in the most difficult project yet undertaken in the space science and applications program. centaur launch vehicle has completed the first phase of its development program with a successful launch in august come -- in carrying a surveyor august, dynamic test model. centaur is now qualified to meet surveyor direct descent requirements. the development phase to put surveyor into parking orbit should be completed in late 1966. going beyond the moon, the planetary program in 1965 saw successful completion of the mariner mars mission. mariner iv had to be launched under the pressure of the timetable of celestial mechanics, providing only a

short window every two years during which a mars mission could be launched. the first attempt was unsuccessful due to a faulty shroud. in november 1964, mariner four was successfully launched with a redesigned new shroud on time for its historic journey to mars. on its way mariner four give us , our first look at interplanetary space between earth and the orbit of mars. it sounded much like that between earth and venus, with one big exception. a notable peak in the impact rate of cosmic dust activity was recorded on the monitors of the mariner project. this, and other interplanetary experiments returned , 20 million scientific measurements during the course of the flight.

on the 307th day of flight, when it passed me on the effective range of data transmission, it was 191 million miles from earth, a standing record. its life will extend beyond 1967. mars,passed close to mariner measured no evidence of radiation belts, such as we have near earth, and no significant magnetic field. this, and the lack of such features suggests that mars, , unlike earth, may have a solid core. in july 1965, as the fly like, -- as the crucial tracking flyby approached tracking stations of the deep space left , around the world and the scientist that mariners' control, coordinated the final command that turned on the cameras.

at 10,500 miles mariner 4 began to take pictures. there were 22 in all. it would cover 1% of the surface of mars. picture data was stored on magnetic tape for later playback. as the spacecraft moved behind mars, changes in the radio signal passing to the atmosphere of mars was recorded. this equitation -- this echotation experiment showed the martian atmosphere to be thin and revealed the existence of an ionosphere. picture information in digital form came in at 6:00 a.m. on july 15, 1965. converted into shades of gray, this is what the first picture looks like. a revelation, comparable to galileo's first view of the moon through a telescope. there were 22 pictures taken.

the last data range of 7500 miles. there was scant evidence of erosion, suggesting that the martian surface may be as it was one billion years ago, with little water present. perhaps the best is this one, showing craters, possibly caused by meteors distributed on mars in a pattern similar to that of the moon. after picture playback, mariner four returned to reporting on interplanetary space. with good data received on october 1. we may be able to resume tracking in 1966, hoping for more good data when it moves near to earth in 1967. the mission answered many questions. the big one, "is there life on mars?" will wait for the voyager service exploration.

-- voyager surface exploration. voyager is designed to explore mars by automated spacecraft. landing capsules may be adaptable to other exploration. in 1965, the first part of the design definition for the voyager spacecraft system was completed by each of three contractors. the voyager spacecraft system will orbit mars to make measurements similar to those made by earth satellites. the spacecraft is also intended to carry instrument capsules , which can land on the surface of mars to make a direct biological, meteorological, and geological measurements. voyager will require planetary quarantine when landing. in 1965, tests began with a new tool to guard against contamination. in bio clean rooms, like this

experimental facility, instruments destined for planetary landing may be assembled. this is assured by a flow of clean air from ceiling to floor and by continuous monitoring. meanwhile, significant planetary exploration continues with a new series of pioneers. under management of ames research center. on december 15, pioneer was vi successfully launched from cape canaveral by improved delta launch vehicle. this carries experiments in cosmic rays, magnetic field, solar plasma, and radio propagation. it will send back measurements from up to 100 million miles away in the regions between the earth and venus. in 1965, man in space made

significant contributions to scientific knowledge. during the gemini flights astronauts performed a wide , array of scientific applications and technology experiments. most spectacular has been the color photography from the gemini spacecraft. photographs like these have immense potential for the study of geology, water resources, glaciers, oceanography, meteorology, forestry and even , agriculture. physiological and biological experiments in which the astronauts were subject or experimenter demonstrated the effects of the space environment on man and other forms of life. some 30 experiments are in preparation for earth-orbiting apollo missions. 10 experiments are designed for placement on the lunar surface

by an astronaut. these future manned space experiments will require specialized scientific training. in 1965, 5 scientist astronauts were selected. they have started their training. they are owen garriott, curtis michaels, harrison schmitt, edward gibson, and joseph kerwin. many projects within the complex bioscience program relate to manned spaceflight. lunar and planetary explorations, or deep space probes. accomplishments of the bioscience program in 1965 touch upon all of these variables. the first flight model of the bio satellite is now being built and tested.

ames research center, manager of the bio satellite program has , assisted experimenters in preparing 13 experiments for the first bio satellite flight, a three-day orbit. time lapse photography shows the test cycle for some experiments. the effect of weightlessness on growth and movement will be studied using the pepper plants. embryological growth will be studied on frog eggs. the effects of weightlessness will be studied on the single celled amoeba. 7 experiments will be flown to study the combined effects of weightlessness and radiation. bacteria, mold spores, plants, and several insects will be used. this mockup of the biosatellite shows the spacecraft in experimental configuration for a 30 day mission.

in addition to the three-day flight, it will orbit the earth for periods of 21 to 30 days to determine the effects of the space environment on human cells, rats, plants, and monkeys. the physics and astronomy program is of fundamental importance to the national space effort. a family of orbiting observatories under the goddard space flight center is a major element within the program. the first orbiting geophysical observatory was launched from cape kennedy in 1964. the second went into a nearly polar orbit from western test range in october 1965. both had trouble in orbit. 2 booms failed to deploy on the first. the second had an orientation problem. both are considered failures, but successful based on the

quantity and quality of data they continue to return. one is still operating 15 months after launch. two was only in orbit a few months and has returned less data, but completed many successful orbits in a stabilized mode not achieved by one. they continue to get data in the present spinning mode. they have proven the capability to make a broad spectrum of measurements at the same time in the same place in the previously more or less separated fields of magnetic field research and radiation research. a third has been completed and is now undergoing tests. with the firsted 2 has been incorporated into the design and test.

the samearry experiments as one, and will be launched in 1966 from cape kennedy. the oribiting solar observatory important to the physics and astronomy program. in orbit above the earth's atmosphere it will observe the effects of interplanetary space without the blocking effect of the earth's atmosphere. orbiting observatories contain a number of complex experiments designed by government agencies coming universities, and nasa scientists. osl 2 was launched in 1965 and placed in orbit. 7 of the 10 experiments aboard returned new information about the condition of the sonnet solar minimum. this included measurements of

the solar outlook in the near ultraviolet, x-ray, and gamma ray region. osl2 will be reactivated at a later date when slick conditions -- when solar conditions have changed. osl 3 failed to orbit and was lost in the south atlantic. the experiments lost will be duplicated in the fifth osl. the fourth and fifth are scheduled for flight and are in various stages of fabrication and tests at the contractor plant. knowledge of the sun has shown clearly the need for rescission, iraq capacity spacecraft, for the study of solar phenomenon. last year, an engineering model of an advanced orbiting solar observatory was completed.

the stabilization and guidance system is being built. in some -- and some sensors are under testing in the laboratory. some experiments have already been selected. astronomy, the study of the universe, achieves new dimensions in the ability to put instruments above the earth's atmosphere. here, they may measure gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, infrared, and radiowaves that -- radio wave radiation that cannot reach the ground. in 1965, after five years of exceedingly difficult developing work, the first orbiting astronomical observatory was being readied for flight. the experiment packages have been tested and integrated into the first flight model. each oao will carry experimental packages from university wisconsin, goddard space flight

center, and other scientific agencies and universities. the prototype model completed its qualification tests at the contractor. it is being modified to serve as a later flight spacecraft. the last year saw marked progress in providing an observatory in space that can be used by a number of astronomers free from the blanketing and distorting effects of the earth's atmosphere. more traditional satellites were launched. one of the most important scientific discoveries of this age has of the space been the effect of earth on space. it was suspected from experiments carried by pioneer and explore satellites and confirmed by explorer xiv and the first interplanetary

monitoring plot form. -- platform. previous satellites to continue study of interaction between the earth's atlantic field and the solar wind done by the first in 1963. in particular, they are exploring the shockwave and transition region on the sunward side of the magnetosphere, and the extended tail on the night side of the magnetosphere. in april, explorer 27 was put in orbit. it is measuring earth's gravitational field through doppler tracking. in addition, it's transmitters provided to observers and 36 nations data on the content of -- on the electron content of the atmosphere.

this is a major element in our international scientific program. another explorer launched in 1965 was the satellite geo launch from the johns hopkins physics laboratory. it is an active satellite containing systems and reflectors. for a detailed study of the earth's gravitational field and a reference for precision mapping. it was successfully launched in november by an upgraded version of the delta launch a vehicle -- launch vehicle that were being tone for the first time. also in 1965, another geodesic explorer was inflation tested in new jersey. it will be launched in 1966. from satellites built by other nations and nasa in 1965. this was launched in late november. it combined the canadian alouette b with the nasa

dmba explorer in a piggyback configuration for ionospheric study. already the results of this completely successful experiment have long -- added considerably to our knowledge. the two are orbiting within approximately one mile of each other conducting measurements. explorer has demonstrated another magnitude control center, which should be useful for future scientific missions. one was launched in december to investigate very low-frequency radio signals and space. it was launched by nasa's only all solid space vehicle, scout. scout has been used for nasa, the department of defense, and

international organizations. there have been 39 launches since 1960. the last consecutive firings have been successful. like explorers, the founding rocket is an economical, reliable and versatile tool. in approximately 130 were 1965, launched to continue the investigation of our atmosphere and periodic exploratory space experiment. in february and march of 1965, n, 77ear of the quiet su founding rockets were launched from the military transport, along the west coast of south america, from colombia to chile. by mobile launch was managed centers. the experiments came from nasa centers, other government agencies, industrial laboratories, and universities.

[rocket engine roaring] narrator: scientists and government officials welcomed -- were welcomed at many of the ports visited. the most important of the scientific accomplishments was the ability to conduct our first rocket measurements of the ionosphere from equatorial regions. sounding rockets have been launched for scientists of many nations in virginia. in august 1965, an international meeting was held there to set up an inter-american meteorological rocket network. nasa's sustaining university program is providing grants nationwide for graduate training, scientific research,

and laboratory facilities that support and encourage fundamental space science research in the academic community. in 1965, doctoral students -- more than 3000 pre-doctoral students worked under nasa ining grants. 70 received their phd's during the year and are working in industry and that university. during the year, the research grants, totaling more than $13 million, were 445 universities in 27 states. their interim or final results were a significant factor in space science accomplishment. space science and engineering laboratories, fully or partly funded by nasa, were put into service at 12 institutions in

1965. 5 more have been previously completed. another 16 are underway. the academic community joined with industry and government in the national space effort. and a national effort it is. scientists and researchers from colleges and universities, engineers and scientists, administrators and technicians at contractor plants throughout the country and the scientists, , project managers, engineers, at nasa field and launch centers -- this is the team, these are the men who made 1965 a year of success for space science and application. some of the highlights -- new uses for communication satellites already in orbit. meteorological satellites for increase whether coverage --

weather coverage. useful results from technological experiments program for astronauts during manned spaceflight. and there was progress in the development of a bio satellite to carry other lifeforms and experiments into the space environment. sentara, the nasa launched vehicle for surveyor was , launched to complete the first phase of its development program. it was the year in which our knowledge of the earth, the son, and the physical nature of the universe was increased by the scientific information returned from floating laboratories and explorer satellites, pioneer soundingbes, and rockets. our most spectacular successes -- the lunar photographs of the ranger series and the pictures by mariner iv, which gave man his first close look at the

surface of mars. these were highlights of 1965. now we look to the future, to , the new challenges and the continuing opportunities in that limitless laboratory -- space. ♪ announcer: here are some featured programs this new year's weekend on american history tv on c-span3. , and author and historian compares the assassinations of abraham lincoln and john f. kennedy -- highlighting the similarities and differences of the tragedies. a 1965 meet the press interview

with daniel moynihan, who authored a report on the causes of black poverty in the united states. >> i believe the president johnson said in his howard's manch -- you cannot keep a in chains for three centuries, take the chains off, and say you are free to run the race of life like anybody else. people have to be given the opportunity to compete with effective resources. i think we should make a special effort. announcer: sunday at 9:30, a visit to her shing park for proposed designs for a new world war i memorial for its upcoming anniversary. our schedule go to www.c-span.org. this weekend on c-span's cities tour with our comcast cable

partners we will explore the history and literary life of oakland, california. we will visit marcus books, the oldest independent black bookstore and talk to co-owner blanche richardson about its history coming importance to the community as a source of information and meeting place during the civil rights movement. 1960 by myed in parents, dr. ray and julian richardson. the purpose was to offer a resource to the community, feeling that black people needed a place to go where they could learn about themselves. learn about themselves from other black people, mostly. it was a service they were theiding to the community, community at large. the more other cultures know about black people, the better it is for everybody.

announcer: on american history dinake a trip to oakland's town and learn the history of chinese in the east bay area. the author of "yellow journalist" offers his experience growing up in the chinatown neighborhood. >> in april of 1906 and earthquake on the san andreas fault destroyed records at san birth andcity hall -- death records. here was an opportunity for chinese in the bay area to say, our birth and death records are no longer existed. -- no longer existent. maybe we can come up with plans to tell the government that we .ere born in san francisco that began the entire paper

scheme that allowed chinese living in the united states to say they were born here in the united states, and that they had children in china and they would like to sponsor those children in china, family in china, to come to the united states. a number of chinese came during the post-1906 earthquake period, including my father. announcer: watch the c-span cities tour to oakland on c-span2 book tv and sunday afternoon at 2:00 on american history tv on c-span3. they c-span cities tour, working with cable affiliates and visiting cities across the country. announcer: 70 years ago on international war crimes trials november 20, 1945, began in nurnberg, germany.

next on american history tv, historian mark hull gives a history of a case. in an eight-month preceding, nazis were put on trial for murdering more than one million jews and tens of thousands of others including partisan writers, disabled persons, and roma. >> we mark the 70 anniversary of the nuremberg trials -- we present our program in partnership with the chairman presidential library, the german center of kansas city, the holocaust education, and the u.s. army general command and staff college. tonight's program speaker, dr. mark hull, teaches the war crimes law in american history. he earned his undergraduate degree from citadel.