, and environmental justice to philadelphia. >> every minute of the republican and democratic party convention on c-span, c-span radio and c-span.org. each week, american artifact takes viewers into archives and museums and historic sites around the country. smithsonianit the national air and space museum located on the national mall. our tour guide is valerie neal. head of the space history department. usows is artifacts -- artifacts from the moon to mars. >> i valerie neal. we are at the center of the museum. -- hallthe horrible where we display the pioneering aircraft and spacecraft that

transform the modern world. when this museum opened in july every to back on display had recently been on the move. this was very much a museum of contemporary spaceflight and for most people, their first chance to see what had been lauded in 1960's and 70's during this heroic age of space exploration when humans first went off the planet into space and all the way to the main. when the united states and the soviet union began sending craft out to export the nearby planets. all of this was exciting and thrilling and people just flocked to the museum to see it. in the 40 years since the building opened, we have continued to acquire treasures

of space history. we have about 17,000 artifacts related to space history. we have just over 1000 of them on display in our two locations here in the washington area. then we have another 1500 on display in other museums around the world. in our tour today, we are going to look at some of the original artifacts that were the stars of the show when the national air and space museum opened. we're also going to look at artifacts from history that have been made. we will start our tour here with the lunar module. the icon for the landing on the main in july 1969. it actually has a companion spacecraft. the apollo command module. the command module, the service

module and lunar module carried three astronauts. module brought them back safely. is an actualdule lunar module that never flew in space. it was intended to be used in an earth orbital test flight but the test was canceled as unnecessary as a nasa lunar module to the national air and space busy. it consists of two parts. andbase which has the legs the engine and then the oddly shaped top which is the crew cabin. this was attached to the command module for the flights from earth to lunar orbits and once in lunar orbit, the two crew

members who would descend to the aldrin, armstrong and fly into the lunar module separated from the command module where michael collins stayed to orbit the moon and began the descent down to the surface. this was a thrilling moment in history and almost everybody alive at this moment remembers where they were, whether there were watching it on television or if they were standing at an

appliance store watching it on a television. people around the world stopped to watch the landing on the moon in the first steps of human beings on the moon. >> i will step off now. one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. crew had climbed out and done some exploration close to the lunar module, collected some samples, taken some photographs, placed a u.s. flag on the man, they went back onto the lunar module and this became the vehicle for the troop who -- trip home.

ascended back up into lunar orbit, rendezvoused with the command module, exited the lunar module and once they were secure inside the command module, reunited with michael collins, the lunar module was detached withill back to the moon an intentional crash on the moon because geologist and seismologist wanted to be able to track what kind of impact it made on the moon. for myspace historians point to view, this crash, the apollo command module in the lunar module are the icons of the space race along with the suits worn by the astronauts, men. -- on the moon.

this symbolized july 16, 1999. in effect, one the space race. thischildren look at spacecraft they say, that does not look like a spaceship. we tend to think that spacecraft are always streamlined and maybe they look like rockets more than anything else. an spacecraft has interesting design and is fairly primitive given the job that it had to do. it did not need to be streamlined on the outside because it was not going to operate in the atmosphere. it would only operate in the vacuum of space and would not be subject to strong gravitational field on the moon. it was actually fairly flimsy in some areas. the legs are strong, that amount

for the rocket engine is strong. but the craft itself and the crew module, crew cabin were fairly spartan. .wo windows armstrong had command of the craft during the final descent to lincoln. both were standing and fully suited. they pretty much filled the --erior audio and that interior volume. it was designed with the purpose of planning given the crewneck said so they can spend a couple hours on the surface of the moon and then launching again along cargo tor precious demonstrate that they had been there and do have those first scientist to begin analyzing and better understanding the moon.

think thatamazing to the computing powder -- power required to send this craft to the moon and to program them for was donent and launch with barely can traded to -- fairly primitive measures. it is often said that the computing power we hold in our hands everyday with our smartphones is vastly more than it took to send people to the moon and back to it gives you a sense of the ingenuity of the engineers and that day. we have seen the iconic from the baroque age of spaceflight from the 1960's. just beat away from it is that

much more contemporary one.craft, spaceship the first craft privately headed byby a company burt rutan. spaceshipone was the first privately developed craft ever to be launched into space, return to earth and be launched again and return with a human on board. 2004,ng that in the year won a $10 million prize posted to encourage commercial development of spacecraft used for space tourism. operates as the orbital craft. it does not going to orbit around the earth, but like alan

shepard in 1961, it goes up, makes a loop into space and then glides back down to a landing like an airplane woodland. -- would land. there is a mothership that if the transporter aircraft and spaceshipone stumbles up underneath it. the mothership flies it around in the atmosphere than it was released and after it is released, the rocket ignites and shoot straight up. spaceshipone is a very innovative design and that has a hybrid rocket that is part liquid propelled and part solid,. thoughhold three people it had only the pilot and some ballast to indicate the weight of two other people during the prize flight.

it has a distinctive divine -- design. it has a configuration with the wings up at 50,000 feet. down and it is very streamlined looking. as it shoots up into orbit and reaches the threshold of about 100 kilometers, the wings pivot up. that stabilizes the craft. the loop last about six minutes during which the pilot and passengers would be able to experience weightlessness. if they want to unbuckle their seatbelts, they would go out of their seats. they can look throughout the windows and get a wonderful view of the curvature and blackness of space. descends, the feathered

wings, what they're called, the feathered wings stabilize the craft in the way that a badminton birdie is stabilized so the noble -- nose stays down. it also creates more drag. it does not need a bulky heat shield. spaceshipone comes back into the atmosphere where there's enough aire so that it can fly -- so that i can fly. downhole thing glides back to a landing on the desert or a runway. craft is reminiscent of a race car. it is sleek and is aerodynamic sporty.ooks

and looks like the craft that a person who wants to go up into space for a quick look and a quick experience of weightlessness might want to climb in and go for a ride. where this may go is to the next spaceship is a larger . sichard branson, who operate and owns virgin atlantic airways partner with burt rutan and his company to do a larger version of spaceshipone. he has named it virgin galactic and it will hold 12 people and it is being developed for the express purpose of providing spaceflight to paying customers who want to have the expense of spaceflight. -- experience of spaceflight. they don't have a set debut date

. they had a setback from another test flight crashed. it is still out there on the horizon. something likely to happen. virgin galactic is by no means the only such company. there are other companies developing spacecraft for the same reason. we may be on the threshold of a new era of human spaceflight. most of the spacecraft in the collection come from our space agency. nasa is the principal donor and at the end of their need, the agency will transfer spacecraft, spacesuit and a great friday of other equipment to a museum so that it can be preserved and displayed and even used for research. caseshipone is a different and that it came from private enterprise and so in this case, we worked directly with the

owner, manufacturer, designer, burt rutan and gives paul allen, business partner, one of the cofounders of microsoft and if approached them -- them after the first flight in june of 2004, regardless of whether you win or not, we think spaceshipone deserves to be in the national collection because it was the first privately developed spacecraft piloted by a human being to go into space and return. notice the nozzle of the engine on the back, that is not damaged. rather, that buckled in space during its first test flight

when the engine ignited and the heat and force of the engine nozzle forckled the the second plate and third flight, different nozzle was used and they also made some corrections to the addition sequence so they did not have the buckling problem again. when we asked to have spaceshipone delivered to us for the national collection, we asked to have a return to its original configuration from the first flight. the first flight was on the prize-winning flight, but it was the record-breaking flight. toy went to the trouble reinstall the dented engine nozzle on it. skylab. stop will be we will look at that because it was one of the original artifacts on display since before this museum opened.

skylab is so large that it was broadened the museum before the building was closed. now i'm standing in front of a model of skylab that is as tall as i am. absolutelyylab dwarfs the model and me. it reaches from the floor up into the sky. this is two stories tall. the united states first space station. placed in orbit in 1973 and in ,3 and 74, 3 different national nasa73-74, three different astronaut groups spent time there. the whole point of the missions were to get some experience flipping and working in space. when the apollo program came to

an end, there was still some hard work left over an afterthought, what can we do with this? we have developed this tremendous capability to launch spacecraft all the way to the moon. we still have a couple powerful rockets on hand. can we repurpose them into something else? said the decision reached was to take the third stage of the thentic rockets that howard spacecraft away from earth on a trajectory toward the main and turn that into a habitable miniature space station the crews could live in what they were getting the experience of living and working in space. the actual element that is behind me is the full cylinder that is marked by this band

here. you can see from the image that it is two stories inside. they could live. in the missions to the moon and earth orbit, they had been in spacecraft that were essentially cockpits. they had no more room in them than a sports car but skylab was like having a house. they had rooms. there was a galley but they can prepare food and meet around the table, eat together. they were still eating out a but at tags and 10 cans, least it was more homelike and more sociable. they had sleeping quarters. threettle punk areas -- little bunk area is about the size of cloth is. they had areas were they could retire to solitary time. and some sleep without being

confined to the flight seat in a capsule. most important, it had an actual bathroom. it has an actual toilet. missions,ese permits -- previous missions, the astronauts were using plastic asked to collect their waste. -- finallythe had a had a toilet. they had a sink for the can wash up and shave. it even had a shower which was seattially a tunnel like that it astronaut pulled up around him and then could use water from a sprayer inside the container. the trick after the shore was all the water had to be wiped enclosure.y and

they finally decided it was more trouble than it was worth. they would just take sponge baths. there's also room to have an exercise bicycle and to have some experiment setup and then they had a huge attic above the living area for the extra supplies to be stored and a lot of the system elements were there. they couldig that run track around the perimeter of it and do tumbling around the perimeter. acrossnning and tumbling . that was for fun, but they also used it for serious reasons as well. testing out a jet backpack that might be used on spacewalks and they were able to operate that in the attic space that was so commodious.

there was the remainder of the propellant tank and that became a big trashcan and they put the trash through the hats and it would go through the lower level. the orbital workshop was the largest part of the skylab. above it, there was an airlock module that enables them to go this bignto service exhibit tory -- observatory which was a wonderful scientific facility attached to the orbital workshop and using the instruments friday of cameras and detectors on the apollo telescope mount, we got our first really detailed view of activity on the sun and we understood the first time how

our sunour son is -- is. moving all the time, it has holes and storms on it and it was an amazing thing to get this new information through the telescopes on skylab. see thethe top, one can docking ports for the apollo service module which was the shuttlecraft to bring the astronauts to skylab and bring them back home again. the pulsing is 22 seats in diameter. when you think of the ingenuity rocket,ng a stage of a which is basically a big fuel tank, into a home that people can live in and you can provide them with plumbing and comfort and room to move around, and

, this to enjoy the view was a kind of turning point in our space program. .kylab was the test run the name 1950's and early 1960's and on, cleaners in the united states have foreseen and eventual space station. in fact, the original plans were to put a space station first and they go to the moon. the president can entity reversed that and decided to set the united states to the moon first as part of the cold war competition with the soviet union. in the back of everybody's mind, it was still a space station, to whatas the first cap now has become the international space station. a huge new facility in the earth's orbit this behemoth

backup skylabhe space station. place ready. nasa build two of them in case they wanted to do to skylab missions they knew there is some hardware problem with the first skylab orbital workshop. we did make a modification to it. more ordinarily, we don't. case, we cut a passage down a sortand laid ofhallway through the middle the living quarter some people can visit the museum, walk inside, cv living quarters, looking to the bathrooms and see a manikin at the table with some food out at the table. bicycles are setup up. they can see that trash

airlocks. and if they look up, they can be wowed by the amount of free space there is. i mentioned that skylab was occupied in 1973 and 74. the last crew to leave skylab attended up and put it into sleep mode with a view towards the future crew coming back. the nasa got very busy developing the shuttle. what happened to skylab? over time, the orbit again to deteriorate somewhat. it started dropping lower and , and there was an early plan to use the space shuttle to go up and rendezvous with it and boosted backup. to -- hire out to two. the shuttle was not yet ready to fly. what happened is after the orbit

diminished, nasa had to bring it back in a controlled reentry. in 1979, skylab was brought back down and straight into earth's atmosphere like a major. it broke up over the indian ocean and a few pieces fell into parts of australia and were recovered. fortunately, no one was hit. no injuries. no property damaged. skylab because this was still new in 1976 when the museum open. people streamed in here by the millions. they were thrilled not only to see the old aircraft, but to see the new spacecraft to see what had been happening in space. they've had seen on the news and heard about. skylab was one of the featured attractions.

skylab was about settling down in space. throughout the 1960's, the impetus had been on hitting into space. to get into orbit. to get to the moon. was one, --ace race moonith the ladies on the , -- landings on the men, the u.s. and soviet space graham -- oon, u.s. and soviet space program began to shift gears. ofelopment of a series space-based and. there was a moment there in the early to mid back and 70's when soviet and u.s. tensions abated somewhat and the two space programs, the two nations

decided to do a cooperative entrance to space and that occurred in 1975. it was a rendezvous and docking and space of an apollo spacecraft of the united states. historiclled as a handshake and space. -- whento craft docked ocked, theafts d russian commander and u.s. commander shook hands. there was hope that this would be good beginning of a new era in cooperation. thaw in relations did not last very long. throughout the letter 1970's and 80's, the u.s. went on with developing the told and the soviets went on with

.evelopingstations it was not until the collapse of the union that another opportunity arose to have a cooperative relationship and space. at that point, the u.s. and their international partners invited russia into partnership with international space station. since then, our activities in space have been carried out on a cooperative basis. now we are in the moving beyond earth gallery. this is where retreat human spaceflight in the era of the space shuttle. basically everything that is depicted happened since the museum opened in 1976. in that year, the first space

shuttle enterprise made its debut and it was greeted as a revolution in spacecraft design. this was the first spacecraft to look like an airplane. the first reusable spacecraft that would be able to return to earth, land, be serviced, and fly again. the space shuttle europe is all about practical uses of space. article aspects of space. article benefits of space. the distinctive feature of the space shuttle was that it was reusable. it was supposed to be more usedmical and more readily for routine spaceflight. in fact, early on the planners and designers thought it might operate as regularly as an aircraft. it did not work out that way. it turns out even though it is a

reusable craft, it was still an instrumental craft. it was a very complicated and sophisticated spacecraft. of one ofng in front the distinctive features of the space shuttle. one of the three main engines. these are reusable liquid propellant engines that have not been done before. they operate with a greater degree of efficiency and reliability. engine isshuttle main one of the great technical challenges of the special we are and reports -- fortunate to have one here made up of parts and components that flew on quite a variety of missions. as a whole, it was not flown in had acquired

components on it. you're pleased to have that. -- we are pleased to have that. and we have the space shuttle discovery on display at the second location. it was delivered to us without main engines. it was delivered at this. nasa chose to save the engines. they were so highly prized. they chose to save them for possible use on the next launch vehicle. if we are lucky, we make it one of those and that would be one that had flown in space. on the wall behind the main of theis a cross-section other main propulsion element of the shuttle. that is a slice of a solid rocket booster. or the slice of a model of a solid rocket booster.

in addition to the physically integrated engines, there were these twin solid rocket boosters mounted on the sides of the andt liquid propellant tank be commissioned that model has the cross-section to show the rocket booster with a solid fuel first begins to be true -- to burn. that increases the efficiency of the fuel burn and produces a tremendous amount of thrust through the twin solid rocket boosters. they burned out within two minutes of ignition and fell away from the shuttle. the main engines consume fuel from the external tank for a .5 minutes and then the tank on his way just before the shuttle enters orbit.

ofotally revolutionary way sending a spacecraft into orbit. that is the theme of this whole ellery -- gallery is a new way of doing space flight. as i mentioned, it began to weigh in 1976. the first actual shuttle launch into space was not until 1981. for the 30 following years, there were 135 space shuttle missions. all but two of them completely successful. the two but failed were challenger and columbia accidents. in talking about the shuttle in this gallery, we do talk about

what was revolutionary about it and acknowledge that it was not a perfect technological system. it did not perform exactly as planned and did result of those in twogedies -- tragedies. doing something revolutionary always entails risks and working with new technology operating at the far margins of performance adds to that element of risk. at the other hand, the whole space shuttle system consisted of millions of components they had to work perfectly every time and in most occasions, that is exactly what happened. we have a section in here about the design of the shuttle. various options considered before the final design was

settled on whether to make it fully reusable or partially reusable. out -- won out. we also talk about living and working in space. it was a delivery truck. it could carry satellites into orbit. it was a short-term space station. but a laboratory was in the payload, and actually served as the research center in space. stationd as a servicing with the hubble space telescope. after an oscar do repairs and orbit. do repairsts could in orbit. the construction site for the international space station, all the modules and solar arrays and trusses that make up the

international space station was carried up into space from the payload bay of the shuttle. the space shuttle also had a profound impact on the astronaut perception ofur human spaceflight. up until that point, the astronaut corps had consisted entirely of men in the majority of them were test pilots, many of them combat pilots were very experienced in high-altitude flight under extreme conditions. some scientists had been admitted into the astronaut corps and one of those scientists went to the moon and three of them served on skylab. because the shuttle had a different kind of vision to do research and useful work in space, it needed a crew those more versatile than just post.

it is scientists and engineers to carry out its mission's and was the after a core and more scientists and engineers, that opened up a pool of eligible candidates to become candidates -- to become astronauts. chose 35 candidates, of the 35, 6 for women, three were african-american men and one was that pointn and from , the shuttle after the program was much more diverse and it became more reflective of who we are as american people. in 1983, within the first 10 missions, a woman flew in space on the seventh mission, sally ride and an african-american

flew on the eighth mission. we have on display in this gallery their flight that they presented to the museum after their historic fight. certainly sally ride became a hero to girls and women. in the one of six women astronaut corps and happen to be the one chosen to fly first. she ended up being the one who got credit for breaking the barrier and became a hero for the rest of her life. for had the same -- luford have the same impact in the african-american community. women and african-americans had served in every role. they have been pilots, commanders, mission scientists.

they had demonstrated very well that people who are capable, who have the right skills and right drive and motivation could be successful astronauts. task for the space shuttle was actually its original task. the task for which was designed was the large payload and those construction of the international space station. it took about 40 missions to assemble the international space station in orbit. completing 1999 and in 2011. the space station as it exists now, there is depicted in a model that we have suspended. 1-100 scale model. the national space station is the size of a foot off field.

football field. the endeavor to build something that size in space. we have been in earth orbit for a few minutes, why don't we go to mars? outside the gallery is spiking. the first spacecraft to land at mars. -- on mars. here we are at viking. it is one of two vikings that landed on mars. this is another thing that was in the news at the time that this museum opened in 1976. to have landed on mars after a number of trials and mrs. -- .issez was very exciting as a sort ofick

and it wouldnd\/ scoop up soil. to some be subjected chemistry tests to determine if there were any organic compounds in it. or any moisture anything conducive to life. in a very simplified version of things, the viking lander was going to look for signs of life. that is how the public perceived it. the scientific community was interested in a whole variety of other questions. what was the composition of the rock, what was the surface environment like? it had a weather station, a

variety of instruments. this was the first chance to thely touch and feel surface soil and surface rocks on another planetary body other than the men. tremendously -- other than the moon. in theously exciting beginning of a long history of returning to mars. each time to learn more about the neighboring planet. it has long occupied the people's imagination as the likeliest next destination for human exploration. landers like the viking open the door to the possible eventual human exploration of the planet mars. two have beend dormant for a number of years. sitting there on the surface of mars waiting to be rediscovered

it there by a rover or by some of eventual human explorer. exactiking is an duplicate, or triplicate of the .wo that went to mars this was kept at the jet propulsion laboratory in california. during the mission, they used it as a test case to try out any procedures or to do troubleshooting that they detected. this lander was really part of that family. hasetary exploration developed according to a well thought out strategy. you have to remember that back in the 1960's when all of this was brand-new, we did not know exactly where the main was or exactly where mars or venus was.

we knew approximately where they re, but you need to know that much more exactly if you're going to launch a spacecraft from planet earth in motion. the spacecraft will be in motion and the planetary destination will be in motion. there is a lot of calculations that go into that. in the early 1860's and mid-1960's, there are a lot of -- 1960's and mid-1960's, there are a lot of misses. the soviets would do the same thing. we would try to land something on the moon and it would crash instead. it was a demolition derby in the 1960's. that was the essential first stage which was to start sending crafts out to fly by an

increasingly get closer and closer to determine where they work and what the celestial mechanics of spaceflight really were. after the flyby was perfected in the purpose of that was to get a good look. caps on board could send back images -- cameras onboard send back-- could images. the next up was to go in orbit with cameras and determine the surface and is there an atmosphere, what more can we learn by being closer and staying in order -- orbit? misses.ome near by the early 1970's, that problem was pretty well solved.

you have flybys, going to orbit, the new sunday lander. the next step is to send a rover so that you can learn about not only the immediate landing site were a static craft right viking fits, but you can also ranging out around it and start doing explore.n beings do, extend the range, look around the next hill to see what is there. the next phase has been rover. our next stop will be to take a look at three generations of mars rovers. now we are in the exploring the planets gallery where we focus on recent events in planetary exploration. viking, thed with strategy tends to move from having a static lander which viking was to having mobile

landers. this is one of my favorite parts of the museum, because this is were we could display -- display the three rovers doing research on the planet mars over the last 20 years. the first rover to land and operate on mars was identical to this. was part of the pathfinder of 1996. mission a little rover named sojourner was put down on the surface of mars and operated on beyond its expected lifetime exploring. it has six wheels and they are called rocker wheels that enable it to go over rocks without tipping over. about the size of a microwave oven. solar panels on top to keep it powered and it was really a

little geologist put down on the surface of mars to do some of the investigations that a human geologist would do. tois equipped with a device touch up against a rock and determine what chemical elements are in the rock. it had a camera for guidance and could pick up information about the ambient environment of mars. you can think of them as the first geologist to set foot on mars and to go roaming around so that they could explore a broader area. this is the backup for the pathfinder mission. this could go to mars itself. 10 years later, after the pathfinder mission, we had another mission which landed a somewhat larger rover on mars.

of spirits and opportunity. engineering model not ready to go to mars. you can see the growth. this is my like the size of a golf cart, perhaps. it has the special wheels so that it can operate whale -- well. it is equipped with slower panels and with larger and more sophisticated instruments. it has a robotic arm and has almost a head here at the front of the front of the long neck and that's where the cameras are. for movement around. they enable scientists here on earth to see where it is going. it has various other scientific devices on it and again, a mars

weather station to determine the environment. what if the wind like? whether the temperatures at different times during the are theday -- what temperatures at different times during the martian day? geologistmore capable now on the surface of mars. one that is mimicking some of the capabilities that a human being has. spirit and opportunity for were launched in 2004. opportunity is still operating. still roaming around on mars sending back data. long outliving its life. thewe will have a look at third rover on the surface of mars. this landed in 2012.

this is the model of curiosity. curiosity has grabbed public attention because, first of all, it is so big. and having a car on mars this is the one that has -- has a very dramatic landing sequence where was dropped from a crane that was dissenting from the was -- spacecraft and it caused seven minutes of terror the surface without being damaged. a very successful landing. curiosity has been roaming for kilometers on the surface of planes, on the rim of a crater, going into the theer, to have a look at surface geology.

the main mission of curiosity is to follow the water. scientists have a lot of evidence that at some point in the past, mars had a lot of is inin the evidence sedimentation on mars and origins of land that look as if they had been washed over by water which spent about bridget and -- evaporated and the thrust of the operation is to investigate sites which seem to have an abundance of water at some time in the past. once again, this is a circuit for a human geologist. much larger in scale than the pathfinder in the spirit and opportunity. sturdier structure, similar to the size of a compact car.

camera and weather station. instruments on board. this is also a chemistry lab. several devices that can do analysis of the chemicals in the soil and rocks. is a very exciting mission and has no end in sight. i think the public has become very fond of these rovers usause they are circuit for and pathfinders for us. they are doing the initial reconnaissance of the surface of mars so that if in the future humans actually go there, they will know a lot more about the terrain and know a lot more about sites that might still harbor moisture, if not actual water. this pattern replicates what we did when we went to the moon.

with missions that flew past the moon in one of the next things we did was send a lander on the main just to determine how firm is this doyle. -- soil. if humans will land, will they be able to walk on the moon? we are quite confident about mars that humans will be able to move around on the surface of mars very well. the rovers have demonstrated how easy it is to do that. roverser thing about the as they don't operate alone. there are whole teams on earth that are charging out their itineraries and scheduling their activities and when they are working on the mission, in their heads they are on mars with the

rover. they even wear watches where they set their watch to martian time. the martian day is 24 hours and 39 minutes. their day is just enough longer than ours that for the people working on earth, each day they start work 39 minutes later. the days creep ahead for them. in 1976, museum opened we were wrapping up a golden age of human explanation with apollo missions to the moon and we were launching into the first golden age of planetary exploration with the missions of the 1970's to mars and the outer planets. we are now at at another golden age of planetary expiration, particularly in mars -- on mars

with curiosity rover so actively exploring. we are right in the present moment with the mars rovers. i wonder what we might see here and 10 years or 20 years as planetary exploration continues. with great success. there is much talk about having a human mission to mars by 2030 or so. if that did happen, that would probably be the stellar attraction of the museum by the time the next major anniversary rolls around.-- >> you can watch this and any other program by visiting our website. tv,ext on american history historian jason h silverman

talks about his book "lincoln and immigration." persuadedters president lincoln that immigration is did america's economy. hour.asts about an >> for our speaker this evening, jason h silberman. silverman. he taught at yale university for four years and winthrop university. author of 11 books. lincoln andork immigrant is a volume in a concise lincoln library series. it was released in september. 16,500 blogs