commish then made it a hat trick of assists teeing up thomas muller for his seconds and byron's thought i the reigning champions now have a comfortable 7 point cushion in 1st place well shall only have 7 points in total and look ever more likely to go down. all right that's our show we're back to readers will have an update on the headlines for you at the top of the hour thank you for watching. can you hear me now or years between you and i last year's germantown soundwave bring you uncle a mascot and you've never had to have been surprised to self with what is possible who is magical really brought in moves and want. to talk to people who follows her along the way maurice and critics alike join us from eccles last stop.

long before homo sapiens began to populate the earth another human species had established itself across much of the eurasian continent the neanderthals. fossils discovered during the last 2 centuries in the atlantic ocean and in siberia have shed some light on these mysterious archaic humans. like our culture they had shoshu system as a hand injury to jews. recent archaeological

finds in england and france have helped researchers find out more about these early inhabitants of eurasia so there's a lot to believe in a master of their environment and understood it perfectly. neanderthals managed to survive for some 300000 years and then they disappeared how did they overcome existential threats such as extreme climate change and walked in the end the fils and modern humans have in common.

after the 1st starkey logical evidence of neanderthals was discovered in the 19th century many experts described the species as a plight. a more realistic picture of the neanderthals evolved decades later. analysis of their remains and various artifacts provided details about the way they lived the survival skills that they developed and the climate in which they lived. that climate was extremely harsh during the millennia that neanderthals inhabited the eurasian continent. this was the ice age and there were periods of

extreme cold with temperatures dropping to minus 20 degrees celsius and sea levels were much lower than they are today. the evidence indicates that the neanderthals adapted well to these particularly difficult conditions. paleoanthropologist professor chris stringer of london's natural history museum specializes in the physical and anatomical development of early humans. the neanderthal faces very different to the shape of a modern face and many arguments about how that face evolved white evolved and i think the view now is that certainly that face it's partly to do with counter that

tradition so we know neanderthals have alving conditions that were largely. colder and drawa than the present day in europe and it's wrong actually that the face was absolutely the ninety's or because the nose is very large and it's pulled forwards it has a very large internal volume. so partly it seems that it's there as acting like a radiator it's warming up and humidifying the air that's coming in. and this are true for all of these are inching huge all of the really have around nice of approaches them will be used but never chose to take it to another level where they really own pumping huge amount of it through their noses and i've got huge lungs barrel chest the nature of she's right there blond they burning more

energy to stay warm as well. these physical characteristics helped the neanderthals survive in an inhospitable ecosystem. they also developed and in cotton skills making tools out of flint and other materials. this was groundbreaking technology. it's known as the level one technique and involves using a rock or bone to chip off thin sharp edged flakes from the cool material. here archaeologist van son in law school demonstrates the technique.

of russian think about him shaping the core decorative and then i'll remove pieces that could be used as tools. this is what's called a level one point little it runs along these ridges on your record now i'll break off a piece on this one. it's a long slow process now he has to sharpen the edges. so from as a player you can see all the distinctive features of this process that going after 2 ridges that come to a point and the beveled cutting edge. there's a concave ledge could be used to attach the pointed flake to a spear spying on. the level wire technique helps

neanderthals create weapons to hunt large animals that would provide them with meat for food and skins for clothing. this allowed the neanderthals to spread across the continent despite the cold weather. they were also able to adapt to a brief interglacial periods that were marked by significant increases in temperatures and. there are only a few sites where experts have been able to study thousands of years of neanderthal history. one of them is on the island of jersey in the english channel excavations over the course of the last century have revealed new details on the lives of these early humans.

archaeologist becky scott is a researcher at the british museum she and her colleagues have spent several years studying the neanderthals side but like code does sound. the settlements preserved within the fish and begin accumulating at least 240000. we have dates now of france about $40000.00 and there were lighter settlements as well so actually that is that entire time span. but what it also captures if she changes in climate an environment. so there are times when it's warm you know it's nearly as well mr day in the sea is quite close there are other times when it's cold dipping down into

a glacial period in and then the same is locked up a long way north of the site and a completely different landscapes expat. in prehistoric times jersey was not an island it was part of the european mainland one of its most prominent geographical features is a rock formation that towers 150 meters over a broad plain neanderthals may have used it as a lookout post. finance to people that he gives them control of that so you can maybe imagine somebody set up there perhaps directing up the grapes perhaps spotting. maybe other people coming through maybe herds of animals coming through so by getting out they're actually able to control and work with their landscape in a way that you can't when you're just download and moving through it. scientists

mapped out the ocean floor around the island to find out what the area might have looked like in prehistoric times. few years ago my colleague richard bates and martin bass actually started to conduct about the metrics of the bank that surrounds the cart and up to 5 kilometers off shore so that was painted in the landscape that we can't say so there's little bits of it still visible there's a scary lose in the reefs and eroded see status. the baits brothers investigation showed that the seabed was not very deep they also found canyons where neanderthals could trap bison wild cattle known as all rocks all mammoths. here at the university of reading archaeology professor stephen mithun has been

researching how early humans learn to develop survival skills and adapt to their environment. i think in many ways you know intel's were wild people but i mean wild in a way in the best sense the word they were very sensitive emotional caring people but they were engaged in the wilderness wilderness voices tundras of into place of forests of coasts and had a great understanding of nature and were very much part of nature in the whether or not today so much. rivers and streams were vital to the neanderthals survival. they used these bodies of water to help find their way through dense interglacial forests they also hunted animals who gathered there to drink.

excavations that kalgoorlie in northern france revealed evidence of big game hunts that took place there an estimated 123000 years ago. experts from france's national institute for archaeological research in rap have been working at the site for more than a decade is a new move to go back to paula mobile the animals were probably killed on the riverbank at that time the river was about 10 meters from here not where it is today the ground was soft which made it difficult for the animals to move around it would have been too dangerous to hunt them on open hard ground people. the lives of the neanderthals were focused on hunting they developed skills that eventually made them the most dangerous predators in the region. they were expert hunters we usually associate neanderthals with sites where the remains of medium

sized animals have been found various species of deer and reindeer remorse but they were also apparently. able to kill wild cattle which were nearly 2 meters tall. the woolly rhinoceros was also huge they were very aggressive and dangerous animals but they also provided a rich source of food including meat and bone marrow to be on the trail. mix give asian direct nuke launched says the scientists yielded important new information on how neanderthals adapted to their environment and this is changed our perception of these primitive humans. for the coerced site was discovered in 2002 experts believe that neanderthals could not adapt to interglacial environments it was thought that they inhabited only the colder step sounds and moved out of our

region during interglacial periods of. evidence from the site indicates that neanderthals spread their activities over several locations for example the current takes give asian was set up at a place where these humans butchered the animals they killed just was due to do this was an intermediate site they used for slaughter and they killed the animals somewhere else and then brought the carcasses here when afterward they probably took the meat to a base camp that was a little further away. called the basket pushed up a pretty well. value on anything we've recovered items that indicate that these people made their weapons very quickly without a lot of extra work. the idea was to complete them in what was for them a short period of time. scientists have now determined how these sites were used and how long they were occupied.

the oldest layer is around 124000 years old. i went there twice a year the newest strata which is about 121000 years old was used for 10 months at a time to build more to fuel. it's clear that neanderthals were able to adapt successfully to their environment by restricting their activities to specific areas. they were nomads but they lived in a rather limited region or each site fulfilled a specific function like extracting raw materials or slaughtering animals and they created living spaces and sloped areas that protected them from high winds and they knew how to make good use of these narrowly defined areas. materials recovered from the cow size highlight an important feature of neanderthal

culture their nomadic way of life. this phenomenon has been confirmed by evidence found at the loch site on the island of jersey the 1st scientists who visited the site at the turn of the last century discovered the remains of numerous woolly mammoths most of these items ended up in private collections. this tooth is the only one that remains in the hands of scientists we don't know precisely how the neandertals getting hold of the mammoth that we see brought into the cock but we've seen that that probably hunting numbers of them in that landscape will maybe also scavenge in the mist well but that's certainly not bringing them in any great distance. the neanderthal hunters trapped their prey in the rugged jersey landscape and then

use flint tipped weapons to kill them and flint tools to butcher them. but no items made of flint have been found. and on jersey so where did these essential tools come from. we know from the flint scary day that the journeys people are making a from maybe 20 maybe 30 kilometers away from outer around then sealed in the west wing fresh mint outcrops to make those journeys you're tracking in maybe over a couple of days you carrying your tool kit with you you're working it down as you go and you not replacing it with with local materials so it's like he said deliberate moves to get to places that that you know with every sort of gives us an insight into into neandertal joker fees the ways neandertals a mapping that world trade. materials excavated

a cow and law court indicate that neanderthals learned to plan their activities such as hunting in areas where they lived this level of sophistication does not correspond to the stereotype of neanderthals as crude low browed cave dwellers. i think unquestionably me and tells one the taken some planning in their activities we know that they're hunting big game we know they're hunting mammoths bison horse now to do that you have to do some planning for that because it's got to be a group cult of activity you need to speak with the herds are going to be exactly how we're going to have them in then also need to plan hagar dispute the food and butter it so clearly they have got to be planning that we have to see that from the basics are critical evidence that we that we get. planning allow the neanderthals to optimize key activities like hunting this was an important development because

there were so few of these early humans. before you measure the name of the dig it appears that they lived in small groups with perhaps 20 or 30 people a large clan might have 2 or 3 families. these small groups no go over relatively large areas. and all there were only a few tens of thousands of people in an area the size of europe that we know when she got the she called me up. it's unusual that such a relatively small group of people scattered over such a large area kept coming back to places that were far less spectacular than the cliffs of jersey. in southern france excavation work continues that grow to mondragon a cave like structure on the roman river that served as

a neanderthal shelter. ludovick slee monk is the project leader he says that the evidence they found here indicates that this was an important story on many neanderthal migrations. that got rolled onto our faces to know north towards a strong river which deposited sediments in the cave over thousands of years yet humans 1st arrived here 120000 years ago we recovered items from the cave that date back 80000 years it's a marvelous archaeological record as a tory that covers the period from the 1st settlement to the extinction of the neanderthals 42000 and years ago yes and it's the only one of its kind in the world economy. in these layers of sediment slee mack and his team have found a lot of evidence showing that neanderthals lived here. they stayed only briefly

sometimes just a few days but they apparently came back again and again throughout the course of. their existence. akio logistics have discovered gaps of several decades when new neanderthals appear to have been present here. believes that over 80000 years the mondragon caves were occupied frequently by nomadic groups. know the earth and you know what makes a neanderthal a nomad did they follow her example animals like horses by center reindeer nominees and c i knew that they had good reason to migrate to monte muni when we talk about nomads we mean populations that are thoroughly familiar with a specific area that could be relatively large chautauqua paterniti more longer the freemasonic the group the roots of man or falls apparently met regularly in

specific places for example once a year they gathered to exchange information and members of their group especially young people see this all there is evidence from the sea drone cave in spain that neanderthals also exchanged the women let these really cool. loosened up a coupe they lived together in small groups and reproduced amongst themselves as well and that could cause a genetic problems by healthy gene pool needs constant imports and exports of material too so for example on the show i might exchange my sister for someone else's. toward us this would help to enhance the group's genetic continuity unity killer so he had it up on exult depicts a good side when at a typical gathering place it was like this on the lab. the various groups met there over tens of thousands of years that you feel for the specific purpose of population exchange should your does in them you don't they will sit on top of the tree. the survival of the tribe was essential

that's also why groups of neanderthals meant often to hunt to migrate. wild animals . we found evidence that certain objects were transported from far away in a completely different direction for example the plants that came from 300 kilometers. or 300 kilometers west or 150 kilometers farther north it's not possible that one group would cover such a large area and its annual migration. that's thousands of kilometers and it doesn't fit an annual cycle. well not even hardly are the evidence indicates that there were several groups and each had its own territory. and once or twice a year they'd meet at one place to engage in a common activity she does a cuticle mean. these meetings would produce the

desired results only if the various groups could communicate with each other. this raises the possibility that neanderthals had developed rudimentary language skills . i think to be able to anticipate and plan your social activities your hunting activities or forging to must employ a pretty sophisticated system of communication doesn't mean it's necessary composition language like we have in terms of words and grammar and so forth but i mean the voice of space for communication. scientists have been studying what sort of language the neanderthals may have spoken in any case these ancient humans do seem to have had the physical capability

to speak. we can reconstruct the basic shape of the neanderthal vocal apparatus and it seems to be fundamentally similar to ours but maybe the voice box was a little bit higher in the throat which would suggest the voice was a bit higher pitched doesn't quite go with the butch neanderthal image of them having high voices but maybe they did. but we know that the bones of neanderthal seem to be functioning on gas do for sound transmission the same range of frequencies so they're hearing certainly would have given them the same capabilities as we have in terms of hearing language so i think all of that suggests neanderthals had a basic language every 2. into each other they had speech capabilities. so it seems likely that neanderthals were able to communicate with each other but did they use language uniform that modern humans would recognize.

over communicated on a longer they did communicate so they did have language capability so it was a complex and sophisticated form of language that allowed groups to exchange information with each other and that was crucial to their survival plan the order for you the crux is where they're using words in the way that we use words and those words were then combined with complex grammatical rules or syntax to be able to convey complex ideas and narratives information now i suspect not you. still neanderthals were able to communicate among themselves but what form did these language actually take. i think music can see through and musicality hugely important express emotion hugely important social

bonding as well if you go hunting by so working as a team are going to have to confront you're going to throw your spear just the right time to hit that bison because if you don't get trampled to death so how are we going to build up that chance if we haven't got words i think we sing and dance together i think we see you still see that the modern world singing and dancing together builds up trust bills at that common bond that sense of a group that has been critical to neanderthal survival. scientific analysis of neanderthal brain cases and comparisons with those of modern humans may help scientists to better under. stand the speech capability of these prehistoric people. the brain case all for me on that starts is. very different from that of anatomical and

modern humans for example of flat for have strong bro richards a long gated flat skull this is a robust male who died at an age of 42 years. the shape of the brain is very typical and is unique under the faucets of the word . see morphological structure often on the top brain cases throng lou different from that of another tommy kelly modern humans. internal structure isn't well known yet. we may never be able to create an anatomical profile of the neanderthal brain. but scientists can use their knowledge of modern human brain structure to study that of these prehistoric people especially their cognitive abilities.

because when we talk about cognition you know mark mission is partly a factor of my brain in part in fact of what i've been heritage in part in fact to my develop environment but then it's also all the other support around me you know i'm not very clever unless of got a smartphone in my hand these days or a ruler or a book for so cognition is really a combination of your material culture you have your social environment and your biology inside of you. so we know the answers how the body brightens there may have been become network differently but without that material. after to scaffold their code development and scaffold to support the thinking and without words to do that i think they were inherently inhibited. but despite the limitations cited by professor mithun were the neanderthals able to

develop a culture as we understand the term today. an expert opinion on this topic is divided since there's no hard evidence of songs or dances if indeed they had any. some scientists believe that the archaeological evidence indicates that neanderthals work a people of creating works that may be described as art. one of those scientists is british pretty historian matt pope who knows the flint deposits on the south coast of england quite well. as part of the team that studying the side december allowed he and colleague becky scholars will carry out further excavations there. within the car perhaps the 2 most famous. stratigraphic levels within it the cheekbone heaps on the west the move of the cave

they were piling large amounts of mammoths and a small amount so really why not source but. they could be just the remains of butchered animals neatly piled up in just a very ordered behavior they could be stockpiling them for other uses but these but he does go even further in their ordering the way the skulls of mammoth the place round the outside of these by heaps the way that rips driven on end into the sediment almost a fence in an constrain the bone hips and in one case a rib even driven. through a skull into the sediment underneath goes beyond simple tidy this goes beyond stockpiling material they creating something even if it's just a kind of routine have been chilled behavior even if it has no symbolic meaning

it's still monumental what they leave behind it would still if you saw it today look very very striking. evidence that neanderthals were capable of planning and building structures is rare so the discovery of the bruna kill cave in 1990 in francis of a rhone valley caused a sensation. in a space located more than 300 meters from the entrance archaeologists discovered several structures made of broken. or a ring of this material as well as random piles the ring structures were later determined to be approximately 175000 years old. some scientists say that the neanderthals who built these structures had developed

a complex level of social organization. there's a parallel between the boat heaps and this the style of mites greenock ok both in a way are inexplicably in their their order both a very very structured of course if it's deep in the cave they're not using food refuse but it shows that they capable of working together to create structure out of chaos without any obvious function we've got lots of words for those sort of behaviors in our in our own language we can call it symbolism of art we can call it ritualistic behavior i don't think those words are very helpful i think. it is just something very very human to try and monumental eyes landscape monumental eyes landscape with our own traces in our own interventions on. a rare indication of neanderthal abstract expression was discovered it gorham's cave on the gibraltar

peninsula in 2014. a series of intersecting lines the press dubbed it history's 1st hash tag it's not clear what the symbols mean. some experts like ludovick slim act caution against speculation decrees i'm with there will not be there is evidence that early homo sapiens made jewelry they took the teeth of carnivores that they killed drilled holes in them and created necklaces. we found none of that among neanderthals and no jewelry necklaces beads or anything that might require drilling and scientists have examined countless artifacts from that period of humans wear jewelry and clothing to show off do these items shape our mental cultural and social universe which we then present to others neanderthals the simply didn't do that you know the thing all of us are. future archaeological discoveries

make from skeptics to change their minds but this discussion also raises an important question how closely did neanderthals resemble more than people. in the science constantly changes how we in business neandertals and at the same time we want to bring them close to us are we seeing them as very modern in terms of their behavior we should never forget the fact that if we were confronted by one if we counted one in the street or in the landscape we instantly notice differences in them a fallen tree in their face in their bearing in their gait. rereview the 1st humans of the species homo sapiens arrived in western europe about 50000 years ago. this development appeared to seal the fate of the neanderthals who were

far less sophisticated. studies of the mondragon cave the reconstruction of settlements there and the discovery of flint objects indicate that homo sapiens came to western europe into waves. the 1st consisted of scouting parties who used advanced flint tools. that group disappeared after about 10 years and the neanderthals gradually returned to them on drowned site. homo sapiens returned to the region a few 1000 years later around 42000 years ago. and a for this cave was home to both the last neanderthals and the 1st modern humans evolved and they probably traveled north from the mediterranean through the wrong river valley they settled their goals and it's unlikely that they came into contact with

neanderthals in complete. this was just about the time that the previous residents of this region the neanderthals started to die out. there's been a lot of speculation about why and how this happened. really in your death and you know it in other position haas you did the neanderthals had been there for it doesn't even hundreds of generations. suddenly with the arrival of homo sapiens a disappear. if they never returned to the caves where they had lived who caught them you keep the reason they did the studies at sites in france or other parts of europe and western asia have concluded that the neanderthal population became extinct about 42000 years ago see them on. the leaf thanks from the professor.

tom higham is an expert on carbon 14 dating he's a professor of archaeological science at oxford university and says that recent scientific studies have provided new information on why the neanderthals died out and actually this is different to my original this will be in syria where modern humans who come to sweden and the other cells would get state relative this enough but actually seems to be along the this is the most a populations in different parts of europe we also know. that the d.n.a. is telling us that these people who wishes not only that but into the better which has a increased layer of interest and complexity. i think over the stooges 2000 years in which we see modern humans in the years of us living overlapping in europe that there was a slow gradual disappearance of you know some groups. as

neanderthals started to interbreed with homo sapiens their numbers grew smaller and smaller. until they eventually disappeared altogether. i think we know that other worlds to some extent trapped in their success they survive for 2300000 years and through huge amounts of climate change in very challenging environments but. the culture remained pretty stable for 2002000 years though making basically the same types of tools there were squibs or tools but the amount of innovation and creativity is is minimal. neanderthals and homo sapiens co-existed across your asia for several 1000 years. these ancient humans managed to survive major changes in climate but they failed to adapt to the arrival of a superior species. the thought that there was

a point where there was a group of people in a surviving the same landscape who were who were you know superficially so similar to us but maybe did things in a different ways like it is almost like plague or hunter gatherer thought experiment or something i just i just think it seemed incredible that at one point we were the only human species that walked the earth as we are today. i think that the way that we look at the end of all says a lot about how we deal with others and this raises the question of how we treat other members of our species but today people are always talking about the cultural shock of migration of mars as i think the situation is exaggerated but it's still reflects on how we deal with others on the tour a community. from time to time archeologists find new evidence that helps us to better understand how neanderthals lived. but these are just fragments from the long history of these species.

modern humans inherited part of their genetic code from the end as will. perhaps that's why many of us are fascinated with the relics of these ancient people and the similarities that neanderthals share with modern humans. if they had managed to survive the world would likely be a very different place neanderthals developed a distinct social intelligence and were much more achieved into their environment than was the species that replaced them. and we can only speculate on what influence the neanderthals might have had on the course of human history for better or for worse. yet.

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