[000:00:00;00] ah, the green you feel worried about the furnace? to amelia house of the on the green pasco, we need to join me for the sizes of the green transformations for me, for you all the plan.

ah ah. long before homo sapiens began to populate the earth, another human species had established itself across much of the your ration continent. the neanderthals. fossils discovered during the last 2 centuries in the atlantic ocean and in siberia have shed some light on the mysterious archaic humans. ah, how culture they had, social systems, they had intelligence o, recent talk, illogical signs in england and france,

have helped researchers find out more about these early inhabitants of eurasia. there's a master there environment and understood it perfectly. neanderthals managed to survive for some 300000 years and then they disappeared. how did they overcome ex, suspension threats such as extreme climate change and walked in the end? the fools and modern humans have in common ah ah! after the 1st starkey

a logical evidence of neanderthals was discovered in the 19th century, many experts described the species as a like ah, a more realistic picture than the end of those evolved decades later in the analysis of the day remains in various artifacts provided details about the way they lived, the survival skills that they developed and the climate in which they lived the climate was extremely harsh during the millennia that neanderthals inhabited the racial continent. this was the ice age and there were periods of extreme cold,

with temperatures dropping to minus 20 degrees celsius. and sea levels were much lower than they are today. the evidence indicates that in the end the tools adapted well to these particularly difficult conditions. paleo anthropologist, professor christ stringer of london's natural history museum, specializes in the physical and anatomical development of early humans. the nan so face is very different to the shape of a modern face and many arguments about how that face evolved. why devolved and i think the view now is that certainly that face, it's partly to do with cold and oppression. so we know neanderthals evolved in

conditions that were largely colder and dryer than the present day in europe. and it's likely that that face was either nicer because the nose is very large and it's pulled forwards. it has a very large internal volume. so partly it seems that it's, there is acting like a radiator. it's moving up and humidifier that's coming in. and this re true for all of these, all of them really have larger nice of apparatus that he was doing. but he had to chose take it to another level very they really own pumping. huge amount of it through their noses and like a huge runs barrel chest, they need to excuse their blood. they burning more energy to stay warm as well.

these physical characteristics helped the neanderthals survive in an inhospitable ecosystem. they also developed an important skill, making tools, also flint and other materials. these was groundbreaking technology ah, it's known as the live technique and involves using a rock or bone to chip off, thin, sharp edged flakes from the cool material. here archaeologist van some last could demonstrate the technique regression and could buy them

shaping the core. and then i'll remove the pieces that could be used as tools. this is what's called a live one point. little bit runs along these rigid 5 in your packard. now i'll break off a payment on this one. it's a long, slow process. now he has to sharpen the edges. now, what are some isn't clear. you can see the distinct features of this process of the 2 ridges that come to a point in the keys. and the beveled cutting edge the look on this concave lead could be used to attach the pointed flake to be here to the period the long spot exam. the level technique helps neanderthals create weapons to hunt

launch animals that would provide them with meat for food and skins. the clothing this allowed the neanderthals to spread across the continent despite the cold weather. a whoo! so able to adapt to brief interglacial periods that were marked by significant increases in temperatures. there are only a few sites where experts have been able to study thousands of years of neanderthal history. one of them is on the island of jersey in the english channel, excavations over the course of the last century have revealed new details on the lines of these early humans. archeologist becky scott: he's

a researcher at the british museum. she and her colleagues have spent several years studying the, the end of the whole science at le caught the sombre lod settlements, preserves within the fisher and begin accumulating at least 240000 years ago. we have dates now of front about $40000.00 and they relate to sentiments as well. so actually that captures that entire time span. but what he also captures the huge changes in climate from environment. so there was times when it was nearly as will miss today in the seas quite close. there are other times when it's cold, we dipping down into a glacial period, and the, the sea is locked up a long way north of the site and

a completely different landscape exposed in pre historic times jersey was not an island. it was part of the european mainland. one of its most prominent geographical features is a rock formation that towers 150 meters over a broad plane. neanderthals may have used it as a look out, post finance to people that you give them control of that. so you can maybe imagine somebody set up there perhaps directing out the grapes. perhaps spotting may be other people coming through may be hundreds of animals coming to you. so by getting off, they are actually able to control and work with their landscaping. the way that you call when you just download and moving through it, scientists met down the ocean floor around the island to find out what the area

might have looked like in pre historic times. few years ago, my colleague richard bates, most him base actually started t conductor, but the metrics by all the by that surrounds the courts and up to 5 kilometers of sure. so that was painting in the landscape that we can't see say, there's little bits of it. the still visible is gary used in wreaths and the radio debates brother's investigation showed that the seabed was not very deep. they also found kenyans when the end of thorn could trap bison wild cattle known as orks or mammoths. i. here at the university of reading archaeology, professor steven has been researching how early humans learn to develop survival

skills and adapt to their environments. i think in many ways and yet tell wild people, but i mean wild in a in a sense the word it was very sensitive, emotional, caring people, but they were engaged in the wilderness. well this advice, tundras of interglacial forests of coasts and had a great understanding of nature and was very much part of nature in the way that we're not today is too much rivers and streams were vital to the neanderthals survival. they use these photos of water to help find their way through dens. interglacial forests they also hunted animals who gathered there to drink. excavations at co in northern france,

revealed evidence of big game hunts that took place there. an estimated 123000 years ago. experts from france's national institute for archaeological research in rep i have been working at the site for more than a decade is anymore. but to properly mobile, the animals were probably killed on the riverbank and at that time the river was about 10 meters from here. not where it is today. the ground was soft, which made it difficult for the animals to move around the mattress. it would have been too dangerous to hunt them on open hard ground in metal lines have been the end of those were focused on hunting. they developed skills that eventually made them the most dangerous predators in the region. we found that they were expert hunters all that we usually associate neanderthals with sites where the remains of medium sized animals have been found. various species of deer and reindeer even

more, but they were also apparently able to kill wild cattle, which were nearly 2 meters tall control enough, the woolley right nasir. it was also huge a model and they were very aggressive and dangerous animals. but they also provided a rich source of food including meat and bone marrow excavation, director john luke last says this site has yielded important new information on how the end goals adapted to their environment. and this is changed our perception of these primitive humans. one of the more the co or site was discovered in 2002 experts. i believe that neanderthals could not adapt to interglacial environments. you know, it was thought that they inhabited only the colder steps sounds and moved out of our region during interglacial periods. the evidence from the co aside indicates that in the end

a thought spread their activities over several locations. for example, the current excavation was set up at a place where these early humans butchered the animals. they killed mister car wash . this was an intermediate type. they used for slaughtering anyone on the wall. they killed the animal somewhere else and then brought the carcasses here on afterward. they probably took me to a base camp that was a little further away to come to bask. you persist pretty well. are you interested in? we've recovered items that indicate that these people made their weapons very quickly without a lot of extra work. didn't actually idea was to complete the fun in what was for them a short period of time. would you please tell me if i'm on the should remain. scientists have now determined how the science we used and how long they were occupied

would even be the oldest layer is around 124000 years old will do more. they went there twice a year, is the newest stratum which is about 121000 years old. was used for 10 months at a time. people do more than it's clear that neanderthals were able to adapt successfully to their environment by restricting their activities to specific areas. you fill them out and those are they were nomads. but they lived in a rather limited region where the site fulfilled a specific function, almost like extracting raw materials or slaughtering animals. and they created living spaces and sloped areas that protected them from high winds. and they knew how to make good use of these narrowly defined area. the materials recovered from the side highlight an important feature of neanderthal culture. then no magic way of life. this phenomenon has been confirmed

by evidence found that the law site on the island of jersey, the 1st scientist who visited the site at the turn of the last century, discovered the remains of numerous, willy mammoth. most of these items ended up in private collections. ah, this tooth is the only one that remains in the hands of scientists. we don't know precisely how the tools are getting hold of the mama that we bought into the car. but we assumed that there probably hunting numbers of them in that land state, or maybe also scavenging them as well, that they certainly not bringing them in any great distance. the neanderthal hunters trapped their prey in the rugged jersey landscape and then use flint tipped weapons to kill them and flint tools to butcher them. but no items

made of flint have been found. don jersey. so where did these essential tools come from? we know from the flint that's carried in the journey people are making up for maybe 20, maybe 30 kilometers away from as to and then the alternate westlan fresh clint outcrops . to make those journeys your, your tracking in may be over a couple of days. you carrying your tool kit with you. you're working it down as you go and you're not replacing it with, with local materials. so it's like these are deliberate moves to get to places that, that, you know, with the read. so it gives us an insight into, into meandra, to geographies the ways and tools mapping their world radio. i think the materials excavated at co and la court indicate that neanderthals learned to plan their activities,

such as hunting in areas where they lived. this level of sophistication does not correspond to the stereotype of neanderthals as crude lo, brown cave dwellers unquestionably to undertake in some planning in their activities. we know that they are hunting big game. we know their hunting, mammoth bison horse, not to do that. you have to do some planning for that because it's going to be a group cooperative activity. you need to speak with a hers is going to be exactly how you're going to have them in then also need time to have going to dispute the food and butcher it. so clearly that got to be planning that we just see that from the basic prescriptions that we, that, that, that we get planning allowed the neanderthals to optimize key activities like hunting. this was an important development because there was so few of these early

humans. my name the it appears that they lived in small groups with perhaps 20 or 30 people. a large class might have 2 or 3 families to t. all these small groups moved over relatively large areas. they sold us in all there were only a few tens of thousands of people in an area. the size of europe that we know when she proficio camilla. ah, it's unusual that such a relatively small group of people scattered over such a large area, kept coming back to places that were far less spectacular than the clips of jersey . me in southern frans excavation work continues that grow more drawn, a cape like structure on the road river that served as in the end at the shelter

of the li mac is the project leader. he says that the evidence they found here indicates that this was an important stop on many neanderthal migration. on the home faces north towards straw river, deposited sediments in the cave over thousands of years. some v in human diverse arrived here 120000 years ago. we've recovered items from the cave that date back 80000 year. now. it's a marvelous archaeological repository that covers the period from the 1st settlement to the extinction of any andrew falls. 42000 years ago. yes, it's the only one of its kind in the world. in equal numbers. the, in these layers of cinnamon slee mack and his team have found a lot of evidence showing that neanderthals lived here. they stayed only briefly, sometimes just a few days,

but they apparently came back again and again throughout the course of their existence. ah, archaeologists have discovered gaps with several decades when known, the end of tools appear to have been present here. the max believes that over 80000 years among drum caves were occupied frequently by nomadic groups with sequel number. no, that's what makes and the and to thought no matter if you did. did they follow heard of animal like horses? why said randy newman didn't think that they had good reason to migrate tomorrow if you need, when we talk about no matter what we mean, populations that are thoroughly familiar with a specific area that could be relatively large, which are they to keep it for free? most of them the root of manner thaws apparently met regularly in specific places. the hope, excellent example once a year they'd gathered to exchange information and members of their groups,

or especially young people see additional. there's evidence from the c drone cave in spain that neanderthal also exchanged women that's really from you shorted group me. when it was under the table, they lived together in small groups and reproduced amongst now. and that could cause genetic problems. these ended up a healthy gene pool needs constant imports and exports of material to oh, for example, i might exchange my sister for someone else to be myself called horner. this would help to enhance the group. i'm a genetic continuity genetic. he's really not an exalted pizza. cutter gwinnett, a typical gathering place was like this. i'm glad applied to the various groups met their over tens of thousands of years. so just for the specific purpose of population exchange. sure, your diesel dominion, those articles the survival of the tribe was

essential. that's also why groups of neanderthals mit often to hunt migrate wild animals. ah enough. we found evidence that certain objects were transported from far away or in a completely different direction. for example, the plan that came from 300 kilometers farther install 2 or 300 kilometers farther west, or 150 kilometers farther north. don't put, it's possible that one group would cover such a large area. and it's annual migrations. and you have thousands of kilometers and it doesn't fit an annual cycle. calling us up. oh no he's, i could hardly. the evidence indicates that there were several groups and each had its own territory. then added up to the end once or twice a year when they meet at one place to engage in the harmon activity. she does activity communion these meetings would produce the

desired results only if the various groups could communicate with each other. this raises the possibility that neanderthals had developed rudimentary language skills . i think to be able to anticipate your social activities, your hunting activities, approaching it must imply a pretty sophisticated systems communication. it doesn't mean that that's a competition language like we have in terms of words and grammar and so forth. but it means devices because for communication, ah, scientists have been studying what sort of language than the end of the tools may have spoken. in any case, these ancient humans do seem to have had the physical capability to speak

we can reconstruct the basic shape of the neanderthal vocal apparatus. and it seems to be fundamentally similar to ours, but may be the voicebox was a little bit higher in the throat, which would suggest the voice was a bit pitched. doesn't quite go with the butch now the so limit of them having higher voices, but maybe they did. but we know that the bones of now to tell, seem to be functioning like asked for sound transmission. the same range of frequencies. so the hearing certainly would have given them the same capabilities as we have in terms of hearing language. so i think all of that, so yes they had, the sellers had a basic language to each other. if i had speech capabilities, so it seems likely that neanderthals were able to communicate with each other. but did they use language in a form that modern humans would recognize communicated? o'connor did communicate, so they did have language capability complex. it was

a complex and sophisticated small language that allowed group to exchange information with each other and that was crucial to their survival. the 2 single plan, the study of the crux, is whether they're using words in the way that we use words. and those words were then combined with complex grammatical rules or syntax to be able to convey complex ideas. now, tubes information, now i suspect not in steal. neanderthals were able to communicate among themselves. but what form did this language actually take? i think these accounts, these kind of huge imports expressing emotion, huge important social building as well. to go hunting, work in the team. i'll go be out,

see concent gonna spit just the right time to hit that bison. because if you don't get trampled to death, so how are we going to build up that trust that we haven't got words? i think we sing and bones together. i think we see still see that the modem of singing and dancing together, bills of trust, bills, common bonds that sense of the group that must be critical to the survival scientific analysis of neanderthal brain, cases and comparisons with those of modern humans may help scientists to better under stand the speech capability of these pre historic people. oh, the brain case is very different from that of anatomical model. newman's, for example, of flat forehead strong, grow riches along gated flats. coll is

a robust meal. he died at an age of 42 years. the shape of the brain is very typical and is unique. under the forces of words. the multiple logical structure of the, on the brain cases is strongly different from that of not tell me more than humans, but says the internal structure isn't well known. yes. ah, we may never be able to create an anatomical profile if the neanderthal brain ah, but scientists can used in knowledge of model human brain structure to study that as these pre historic people, especially their cognitive abilities. because

we need to have that condition. marketing issue is part of my bro, in part is that to was knowledge inherent food and pot in fact developed environment. but then also all the other support around me, you know, i'm not very clever unless i've got a smart phone in my hand these days, or a ruler or a book say for so commission is really a combination of you. material culture. you have your session environment and your all the g inside of you. so we know the end has had the brains, they may have been become network differently. but without that material culture to scaffold that development and scaffold to support the thinking and without words to do that, i think there were inherently inhibited, ah, but despite the limitations cited by professor mison with neanderthals, able to develop a culture as we understand the term today,

experts opinion on this topic is divided since there is no hard evidence of songs or dances. if indeed they had any some scientists believe that the archaeological evidence indicates that the end of the goals were capable of creating works that may be described as art. one of those scientists is british pre historian, mat pope, who knows the flint deposits on the south coast of england quite well. toby's part of the team that studying the science lab coat, december alert he and colleague, becky scott, will carry out further excavations there within recall, perhaps the 2 most famous strata graphic level is within the to bone heat. on the west wall of the cave. they were piling large amounts of

numbers on a small amount of why not sure if they could be just the remains of boot animals neatly piled up in just a very ordered behavior. they could be stuck piling them for other uses these but he'd go even further in the ordering the way the skulls of mamma, the place around the outside of these bone heats the way that ripped, driven on end into the sediment. almost the fence in and constrained the bone heaps . and in one case, a really even driven fluid sco into the sediment. underneath goes beyond simple, tidy. this goes beyond stockpiling material. they're creating something, even if it's just a kind of routine habitual behavior, even if it has no symbolic meaning. it's still monumental, what they leave behind. it would still, if you saw it today, look very,

very striking in evidence that neanderthals were capable of planning and building structures is rare. so the discovery of the bruni kel cave in 1990 in france is of a ruined valley calls to sensation in a space located more than 300 meters. from the entrance, archaeologists discovered several structures made of broken stella mites. there are rings of this material as well as random piles. the ring structures were later determined to be approximately 175000 years old. me. some scientists say that the neanderthals who built these structures had developed a complex level of social organisation,

me as a parallel between the, by the heat and the, the salad, my circle unit. ok. both in a way are inexplicable in their, their order. both a very, very structured the course of really go, it's deep in the cave than not using food refuse. but he shows that they capable of working together to create a structure out of chaos. without any obvious function. we've got lots of words for those sort of behaviors in our, in our own language, we can call it symbolism a can call it are, you can call it rich listing behavior. i don't see those words very helpful. i think it is something very, very human to try and monumental eyes landscape, monumental eyes landscape without writing traces own interventions on it. a rare indication of neanderthal abstract expression was discovered at gordon's cave on the gibraltar peninsula. in 2014 a series of

intersecting lines. the press dubbed it history's 1st hash tag. it's not clear what the symbols mean. some experts like ludovico lemax, caution against speculation, because i'm with them f e. there's evidence that early homo sapiens may june, right? they took the teeth of carnivores that they drilled holes in them and created necklaces for physical year. we found none of that among the under thaws. no jewelry necklaces beats or anything that might require drilling and scientists have examined countless artifacts from that period. neil to be humans, wear jewelry and clothing to show off to do these items, shape our mental cultural and social universe which we then present to others. neanderthals simply didn't do that issue. on the 3rd, on a future archaeological discoveries may

prom skeptics to change their minds. but this discussion also raises an important question. how closely did neanderthals resemble multiple people? science company changes. how are we in this is the undertones. at the same time, we want to bring them close to us. we seeing them is very modern in terms of their behavior. we should never forget the fact that if we were confronted by one, if we encountered one in the street or in the landscape with instantly noticed differences in them, the solid in their face in that bearing in that gait. in the 1st humans of the species, homo sapiens arrived in western europe about 50000 years ago. this development appeared to seal the fate of the neanderthals, who will far less sophisticated studies of the mon

drawn cave. the reconstruction of settlements there and the discovery of flint objects indicate that homo sapiens came to western europe into waves. the 1st consisted of scouting parties, used advanced flint tools, grew disappeared after about 10 years. and then the end of thought gradually returned to the mon drawn site. sapiens returned to the region a few 1000 years later, around 42000 years ago. yeah, the other for this have was home to both the the last and the and or thought and the 1st in the modern human. he's all the and they probably traveled north from the mediterranean through the around river valley. so they settled their goals and it's likely that they came into contact with neanderthal system complete. this was

just about the time that the previous residence of this region, than the end of thought started to die out. there's been a lot of speculation about why and how this happened. reading the other tradition nation, denise anderson had been there for doesn't even hundreds of generation will not was you cannot get suddenly on that with the arrival of homeless sapiens disappear jimmy the 5th, if they never return to the games where they live to see of these and that is the 2 studies that scientists and france, other parts of europe and western asia, have concluded that the neanderthal population became extinct about 42000 years ago . got it, and want to learn more, more, delete some of the book, just tom. hi, him is an expert on carbon 14 dating. he's

a professor of archaeological science at oxford university and says that recent scientific studies have provided new information on why the neanderthals died out. and actually different to i recently saw with my mother, he will kind of sweeten and the other cells would get relatively sick. but actually it seems to be a lot more complicated. and this is for the population in different parts of europe . wilson, of course, because the dna is telling us that these 2 populations knowing the medical, the beta, which as a increased layer of interest and complexity at the same time, i think over the 4000 years in which we see modern humans in the living or the laughing in europe, there was a slow, gradual disappearance at the end. it's always me, as in the end, us all started to interbreed with homo sapiens. their numbers grew smaller and

smaller until they eventually disappeared altogether. i think there was some extent to success. they survived for 2000 years and to huge amounts of climate change and very challenging environments. but the culture remains pretty stable for 2000 years. they're making basically the same types of tools. they're exclusive tools, but the amount of innovation and creativity is, is minimal. neanderthals and homo sapiens co existed across eurasia for several 1000 years. these ancient humans managed to survive, major changes in climate, but they failed to adapt to the arrival of a superior species. the thought that there was a point where there was a group of people in a 5 in the same landscape who were,

you know, superficially so similar to us but maybe did things in a different way. it's like, it's almost like playing hunter got there a thought experiment to something i just, i just think it seems incredible. the one point we were the only human species that will be earth as we are today lawyer. so i think that the way that we look at the end result says a lot about how we deal with other issues. and this raises the question of how we treat other members of ours, b, c. but today people are always talking about the cultural shock of migration because there's, and i think the situation is exaggerated, but it's still reflects on how we deal with other pop community. from time to time, archaeologists find new evidence that helps us to better understand how neanderthals lived. but these are just fragments from the long history of this species. ah,

modern humans inherited part of their genetic code from the end of souls. perhaps that's why many of us are fascinated with the relics of these ancient people. and the similarities that neanderthal share with modern humans. if they had managed to divide, the world would likely be a very different place. neanderthals developed to distinct social intelligence and were much more attuned to their environment than was the species that replaced them . we can only speculate on what influence the neanderthals might have had on the cause of human history. for better or for worse. ah me

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