tens of thousands, the southern said to help with reconstruction. but the end of the garage like a dream of revolution does july 20th on d, w. eyes modes, noses. we have so much in common, but a few things do very like skin color. it turns out there's a simple scientific explanation for that, but it doesn't explain racism. there's never a reason to treat people on equally based on their skin color and how we evolved, whether we're alone in the universe and more welcome through tomorrow. today is kind of strange that we actually differentiate. been print black and white

because we have a lot of different tones of skin color. i would think don't happens, black and white. so what's up this race? humans came out of africa about 40045000 years ago and then moved into europe. and they came from south south africa and they had some soccer funeral type that we also seem steps are not protected date. and about 5000 years ago, the headlights or the skin color skin color has only recently changed. and we think the main reason why people get light skin has something to do with quick culture and that gets introduced. yeah. how does causa is the director of the max planck institute for evolutionary m for apology? aka, genetics is a combination of flexibility of genetics. we analyze genetic materials from the past that is associated with humans. and that can tell us something about how people in the past were genetically related to each other. with 1st, the researches analyze genetic material from the time before humans existed. of

the oldest genomes that has been analyzed so far are about 1500000 years old. they're from memphis, from diploma for us to from far up in the north language, i can dig fridge where my to, with it has preserved extremely well in conditions like in central europe. so we kind of go back to the drastic, like some people might ones analyzing dinosaur dna, but we can go back 100 thousands of maybe even a 1000000 years. so what does all this have to do with race and skin color in the lab? yeah. how does causa and the light bones from out of the humans? the dna you provided an explanation for why human skin color has evolved over time . you must become full purchases. they produce mostly crops from plants like we have to faraway and they become almost completely vegetarian. so the already farmers to lift you 4 or 5000 years ago. they didn't eat a lot of meat and fish and that actually causes of popular living in europe

because europe is very dark. and if you are vegetarian and you have dark skin, they've become vitamin d deficiency in the winter. because this we know sunlight, temperatures bind to indeed in the skin. but if you have dark skin, you put choose less by community than if you have flight skin. busy infinity happen, power the in several places that people became life. but it's not that those people closer related like east asians, for example, and, and europeans. and that is a very recent phenomenon. so it really doesn't make sense to differentiate human populations based on the best getting caught up to ok. so a few mutations accounts for the variation in human skin color. and that's why this racism, scientists have long known the dna and or more than humans is 99.9 percent identical . and there were only minimal differences in the rest. so what we call race doesn't

have a genetic basis. the time is often used as a tool of power and depression. i don't think that racism exists everywhere in the world to this is not just in europe and problem that we have an old continents. and at the end it's about property and about power. and those that, that makes exist and we where this is fantastic experiments in like school classes where you can pop up the people, blue shirts and house of the pupils. red shirts and then various trains, group dynamics form or football fans. or, you know, the neighboring village or the many and such types of where you see alienate, but you can kind of see far and cool easily. i think, culture, hope, or concept. we don't have to follow our instincts or not animals. our final genetic tree is based in africa to the is the, the, the, basically the trees, the front of the stick. this branch is all in african, this is tiny genetic diversity. if you find out that africa with all the major and images are inside africa. so actually genetics like no other discipline from my point of view, has actually disprove the concept of racing. so

early humans came from africa. but how did those 1st humans live? and what did they need to find out more scientists are studying the traces left behind on prehistoric tools made of stone. this is roughly what the 1st humans looked like. 2 and a half 1000000 years ago. these earliest humans were already skilled and making stone tools. here and the easier to be in highlands archaeologist discovered atrocious stone tools dating from about 1600000 years ago. for more than 2000000 years, our early ancestors use tools made of stone and their day to day life. these stones are among the few remaining artifacts that offer insight into the lives of human in early human. at the lived in the center for archaeology, and noisy germany, joe,

on the rear of the studies identical copies of these tools, he wants to determine what exactly early humans did with these tools. for example, was this flint blade used to solve was. this robot will help answer that question when we were different from a to use the edges that are used to work those materials, they are correct, revised by different types of damage like the names that we have that's at home. and those, the image that we can always see are the microscopic level. they are diagnostic of those work materials. so if we create a, recreate this damage in the lab, then we can compare it with the damage that we see in our defects. and that will reveal what the tools were used for the archaeologists here want to help bring a bit of order into the tool box used by early human stone tools,

for example, were used to break up an animal bone. bone marrow was an important source of nutrition and the prehistoric diet and this device, the stone is being smashed into an ox legged bone. the card work which is why early hominids would have used stones that would make sharp and durable tools even colanda is caring out what's called a use we're analysis which will help identify what a tool like this was normally used for you can see these nice shell like sheets that have splintered off, which are diagnostic for her was used to talk to her. so this was used on word, right. so if the original prehistoric tools display the same things of where that will help from us, that we're used to solve with parts are just

sabina gods. and stephen taiser has the research project the aims to identify how such early stone tools were used. it's an ambitious undertaking to consult with use where analysis has been around since the 1980 after she made various laboratories were involved around the world. and each lab is used its own reference framework. so the results they came up with aren't necessarily comprehensible for the entire research community. now what we're doing here is trying to identify standards that will allow us to turn this kind of use where research into a proper archaeological subdiscipline test. i just, i know i should have issues with this to the end to also has an electron microscope event. cassandra will use it to examine the stone sample that they use to try to break open the arc bone. the structural damage on the stone is a kind of fingerprint that can reveal what use the stone was put to targets.

there are lots of fine cracks here which must have come from the impact from them, from another piece of information that will help create order and this donates toolbox. tools made of stone were used by early humans for more than 2000000 years. and that means experimental, archaeologists have their work cut out for them. modern technology is helping us to look out deeper and deeper into the universe. what will we find? and would we be prepared for an encounter with extra terrestrials that might sound like science fiction, but it's something scientists are thinking about because there's a good chance that somewhere out there, there are alien forms of life. just imagine one day a us all appears overhead. for an extraterrestrial being makes contact from

a nearby planet down. it's good. that would be one of the most exciting days in human history. a day we've been waiting for thousands of years. we think that it will take lot that as nasa science administrator thomas to a book and gave thought to how such a 1st contact with alien life might play out but a famous and all not now. so we have various scenarios. so it all depends on what we found, where we found it all depends on how intelligent the life was when we got this blackberries. however, that 1st contact took place. the 1st job would be to inform everyone about the discovery made of hey, we have all sorts of communications channels to drawer on that. so if we were being certain from out of space, we'd 1st that every country in the world, not at all. and especially if it affected them, like in the case of an asteroid instead of on somebody international communications channels already exist as well. so that's what we do. and what would

a 1st contact lead to here on earth? if we were to discover, we're not alone in the universe, we'd have to rethink our own conception of ourselves. bandwidth is more if aliens landed to you tomorrow, and most people would find that pretty unsettling. for one thing we'd have to, the civilization is much more advanced than oz because they found us. we didn't find them near hoping to see. but discovering alien life and the universe wouldn't have to be scary. established off the mansion for people who are religious. it might be comforting to imagine that the universe isn't just a cold, empty place, all this nice thought that it may be even a kind and loving form of life, whole slap as has to be seen. and what might that 1st contact look like? there are several scenarios for that too. one possibility is that we received a signal from outer space, but a cosmic dialogue is unlikely. our galaxy is about 100000 light years across,

and the nearest major galaxy is 2500000 light years away. so that's how long our reply would take. the 2nd scenario, the aliens come to us of all the options. this would probably have the biggest impact. did they come in? peace? can we communicate with them and who would speak in the name of humanity? in the 3rd scenario, we find traces of alien life ourselves, like bacteria or other organisms. that's conceivable on jupiter's moon, your rope on it's made of ice and possibly also of liquid water. which tops the list of ingredients necessary for life. in april 2023 e, so launched its juice pro toward jupiter to investigate whether it's little green man for mars, or humble bacteria for science,

the discovery of alien life and the universe would have major implications booklets for you. is there taken up for that? cuz it would be a huge one. right now there's one kind of life for that whole like one that is related, but also all the other branches of light now best buy and then that would allow other light existing sounds like maybe we could use it. the new medications, so a new solutions to problems. you know, you say it would be all sorts of possibilities. we can't imagine today. i'm not mitigate. back of them. button learning from alien life might not be all that easy . for all one questionnaires would we even grasp what they're doing on the philosopher in mind? westcan said we humans a so narrow minded. we always imagined aliens to be just like ourselves. we can only imagine what we know when children neutral aliens, they might be green, have 3 eyes and 7 homes. but they're still creatures with a hedge and legs even though they have some of them the whole volume that and when

i say we still don't have proof. but scientists believe the question is not whether we find alien life out there. but when, for now though, the circumstances surrounding our 1st contact will remain in the realm of fantasy and imagining that 1st close encounter with alien life is something we're pretty good at. scientists think live here on earth began in water, but liquid h 20 only forms under certain conditions in 2005 that was space pro did find evidence for ice on mars. an amazing discovery. and one aspect of the answer to this view, or a question, which comes from calisto, as in colombia, why scientists more interested in studying laws than the move the most is us closest kind of tree neva. it's

further away from the some than us and miles is the only other planets, you know. so the system where humans could survive in syria, at least, for example, moss has a daily cycle that's very similar to us. a day on mazda is 37 minutes longer than here, right? and so all biological clocks wouldn't have to adjust all that much. but on the moon, the so today is $29.00 and a half a day, snow and surface temperatures on the moon. very huge lee and some of the terry is compared to in the shades. that's because, unlike us and most, the newton doesn't have an atmosphere. so there's nothing to help regulate the heat and cold and light conditions of miles and the rules so similar, which is why this is sunset on base planet. and the rotational tilt of us access is almost identical to the active mosse. oh, and if that means that that must be

a shift some, some of the features in comparative kinda treat for such the atmosphere of moss is like a simplified model as us atmosphere. the, as most fia, is mainly nitrogen and oxygen, it's the only planet and also the system with liquid hotel and its surface. the about 3 and a half 1000000000 years ago, there was also liquid water on mas as these, with a valley show back then the climb until miles would just be more conducive to life . and its atmosphere dense. but then moss lost most of it, something to say, the strong solar winds charged particles from the sun blew away. most of mazda is of the atmosphere. us protective magnetic fields, health shield it from the some of the winds. today, the atmosphere on the surface of moss is only about one percent as dense as a and miles changed from a hospitable tenet to the dry,

cold one. it is now to day water on the surface of mazda. besides the ice vapor, there are also 2 permanent polar ice caps here beneath the surface. there's also plenty of this essential results which would be crucial for any mind. outpaced caea in id 2022. europe's x, oh mas trace gas over to spotted was, appears to be vast, was of the move to rice unto the virus mounting heiress, the grand canyon of models. the simulations are on the way to see whether an artificial magnetic field could make mas more hospitable to life. as we know it. at most, ferric pressure and temperatures would increase until the carbon dioxide and war to ice at the north pole would melt. and that would trigger a greenhouse effect that would transform the underground ice into rivers and sees the technology isn't that yet? but it might be possible, at least in series, because what is right, do you have

a science question then send it to us as a video, text or voice message? if we answer it on the show, we'll send you a little surprise as that. thank you. so come on, just that alone with mars scientists are focusing on another. so let's deal neighbor the, the most recent chinese mission to our natural satellite. the jungle 6 has returned to moon rocks and dust from its far side to earth, a milestone achievement. one major challenge for any mission to the moon is getting there. there are many potential problems, especially when it comes to landing. even so, more and more organizations and companies are looking to make the journey to one ignition. on february 15th, the us made

a deceased pro was known to them, and it was the 1st time a private company flew to and touch down on the noon. just see us made a lopsided landing site, but it still sent data back to us as nestor and intuitive machines. the non does own a confirmed for question a disease or o d for sure. what's kept working for about a week and said it lost power when the moon's south pole, when the dog add your name to the queue and ask your question. for good nights, o d, feel free to reach or we hope to hear from you. again, the company intuitive machines pasted on x, taking a while back. you know for us this morning with a credit when the move went dock it couldn't produce solar power anymore. and that to took if on. ok so, so they did a control shut down. it's hoping that after the sun returned about 2 weeks later, i of the lender might have enough power to start up again with us into monday. see, we don't get all that whole fun. come, luna, night now it's about 14 days that will be

a problem for future long term missions. the one place you on the moon rotates more slowly than the rest of my month to month. will you complete a rotation in 24 hours as somebody's why we have 12 hours of 9 and 12 hours of day on average. and the moon completes the rotation in a bit more than $28.00 days. so that's why it's 9 sundays a so long. it's been longer than 14 days, so it's in the of the talking to $99.00 current new missions are facing another challenge. the appalling emissions of the 19 sixties and seventies old landed near the equator. but now the probes the ravings of the moon's south pole and pans. cole's landing astronauts that in 2026. the info who the most straightforward trajectory from the us to the moon follows the moon in the us orbital path around the sun will just wanted to see. and then you arrive at the a quite to india, about a line somewhere else. you know, the engines have to put you on a different trajectory that's more complicated and more costly and takes more fuel

hoping to apply for those. those, the things you normally try to avoid in space flight to go as it was supposed to be . so count mounting down, but now she has several countries set out for the meeting with varying results. india is 10 free on 3 pro, made a successful lending. russia didn't succeed. even today, moon landings are still feats of technology and engineering. this is the pocono a list of the pro pasta coming out to precision landing this 5 seconds. there's no atmosphere that to slow down the landing and keep this kind of speed when a partial defense here on a. it's a very gentle landing that doesn't work on the moon. on the scale, you need jet nozzles to slow you down. if something goes wrong, the whole thing crosses to the ground. that's happened several times already. so it gets me, i'm not sure if i see it, or there's another problem. the shadows on the moon, a very dark. i'm going to push to on the moon, south pole. the sun life has a lot on the horizon, so you get fairly long shadow so you can then i'm fucking but the navigation

devices need to be able to precisely locate the ground type that can be tricky. and doc, aerials and can, plus the shot that was on the moon, on the docket, and on the board. because this now i must be at the scott to light into the shadow . it was 50 displays, took me to have been talking things those long, deep shadows on the south pole make landing difficult. i'm suited 1400 samples of the day is the uk nisa is also planning to fly to the main with it's all gonna land benefit. but that still a few years off, which will allow the agency to learn from other successful landings and on successful ones. and it may be other good now this, this to so all the know is the 1st prove that was entirely developed by e sent. it's scheduled to land on the moon in 2030 or 20. $31.00 begins from directions that mission will be led by jim and east that use within the framework of any software from the we're going to bring freight from the to the movement. of course it's a relatively large amount of freight and one and

a half tons of to bone to london. this aisle in 2018 nessa announced it was setting up a sponsorship to encourage the development of commercial payload services to the main c. and it's back then the idea seemed like a stretch, dark c intuitive machines also wouldn't have made it to the moon without analysis held optics. during the landing approach, that was a problem with one of its range falling dis. lemme trees at the end of its low nights on the moon. a deceased didn't wake up on march 23rd intuitive machines posted on ex r. i am one mission ended 7 days often and a frozen until that communication. there are other ideas out there for how to make the journey into space more cost effective and accessible. what is to use candle wax is fuel instead of expensive liquid proponents. now that really is rocket science, the light this candle,

that's what alan shepherd said in 1961. when he was waiting impatiently for his 1st launch into space. it's also the name of the emission, the 1st test flight carried on by company from germany when they let their candle in may 2024. they didn't make it into utter space. before the start off high impulse, the launch was a success. it was the 1st time that are broken to be propelled by powerful or candle wax induced kate if the rock it contains solid power, if in which is basically candle wax and feel cold liquid oxygen is injected into long channels that have been drilled into it also and the entire thing ignites the burning power of in yields of very hot gas, which delivers a lot of propulsion to the rocket to continue power and doesn't catch fire easily in regular hair. when it does, it burns very slowly. that's why there is next a new risk of explosion, and that means that rocket can be transported safely, even when it's loaded with power from fuel. after the launch,

the rocket was recovered from the test range that its post flight data could be finalized. the, the sr 75 model tested in early may wasn't powerful enough to reach orbit for the s r 75 is designed to be able to spend a short time out of space before falling back to earth together with its cargo. those flights are mainly suited for microgravity experiments and research the to spend somebody that could be, for example, physical experiments, pharmaceutical or biological experiments, material sciences. those kinds of flights have a range of uses for installation free, good. high impulse is working on its next model. the s l one designed to deliver payloads of up to 600 kilograms to move to orbit. it will also use a hybrid rocket motor making is that affordable alternative for smaller satellite operators the that so we

have time for now. but thanks for joining us. and hope to see you again soon on tomorrow, today by the,

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. this is the, the news coming to you live from berlin. francis left wing alliance defeats the far right and parliamentary elections, the surprising victory by the new popular product. please note the party with a clear majority. president amended one that called centrist alliance comes in 2nd . the head of a really depends ball, right? national, right? french prime minister, gabriela tal, says he plans to offer his resignation after leaving the center's to lunch to a 2nd place finish. also coming up, people in texas button down the hatches, houses are boarded up.