we watch tv series for free without registration . hello. this is a question of science. i am alexei semikhatov. the surface of the earth is not at all like an apple peel. even if the earth is likened to an apple, it is divided into relatively independent pieces that move relative to each other.

colliding, sometimes, splitting or crawling one on top of the other . as a result, we see faults that have arisen mountains, and from time to time we receive signals in the form of earthquakes, but such a device of the earth near its surface can tell another story about how it really is. arranged. the earth is deep deep. inside, my guest today is doctor of geology of neurological sciences and candidate of physics of mathematical sciences , professor of the department of dynamic geology of the geological faculty of moscow state university vladimir sergeevich zakharov hello vladimir sergeevich and thank you for taking the time to come to the studio. hello alexei mikhailovich thank you for inviting me. that's

plate tectonics. a modern look at how the earth is arranged near its surface - a plate. this is what this is the most important question of the stove - this is hard. ah, the shell of the earth. or rather, part of the rigid shell of the earth means that the earth is covered with this rigid shell, which we call the lithosphere. the lithosphere is divided into plates, parts of the pieces that you mentioned at the beginning and these parts of the plate. uh, moving relative to each other, interacting in different ways , you promise intrigue. how do you resolve her questions a few, what to imagine them approximately how many plates? well, there are nine large ones, there are nine, but there is a model, uh, in which there are 52 such tiles, tiles, tiles and tiles, well

at least not 1,000. yes, i did not become, not a thousand, well, perhaps dozens, but i will repeat nine large ones. please tell me what holds the plate together. plate together on the surface of the earth well the surface. why is the stove whole why? does she stay intact? this is what, and this part of the plate and this part of the plate, if there are 1,000 km between them, they don’t know anything about each other, the plate is on something that moves it. why is it whole, it is whole, because it is strong, that is, its mechanical properties are as follows. well, like a board, only it still bends. uh huh and that's why she don't falls apart when it fires, well, the earth is round. uh, because the earth is round, well, in some cases, which u suggest plate interactions. uh, subduction collision she bends because she

has no dressing, where she bends and sinks back into the mantle. where did she actually come from, and from this place you can in more detail. what does it mean that it came out of the semolina, and the plate is at the same time both an object and i would say a process, that is, it is formed. it does not always exist, but in any case , the oceanic plate is formed in e zones, which are called zones of mid- ocean ridges is melted out of the mantle. well, if you say it just freezes. this is a somewhat more complicated process, but in any case it acquires the properties of hardness, which actually ensures its strength in the future. well, i can think that it freezes. among the atlantic guys, the oceanic is not only the atlantic ridge , and from there, if i hear you correctly , something from the mantle rushes the mantle, but sticks to what it has already kicked out before it freezes and

becomes solid and so is formed oceanic plate. quite right. that is , if it expands here, it means that somewhere else the surface of the earth is limited. there is not enough. there is not enough somewhere. now i understand better your words that somewhere else someone has to go back to manchester there is no information that the earth is actually expanding. although there was such a hypothesis, it means that if somewhere something is born in another place, it must come back. and we can look at the pictures where they do it. well you can try, if we look at these are the main plates, which are depicted here for convenience. also, different colors. we will see that part of the fucking is purely oceanic and here is the pacific pacific us. coconut a. part of the plates contains both oceanic parts. sorry for the repetition, and continental american, for example, african south american eurasian well, in general, almost all the rest. uh, they are born in the mid

ranges. this is especially good. it can be seen on the mid-atlantic e, ridge. it’s not for nothing that you called him so directly, because this is, well, such an obvious structure of discovery , the study of which in the sixties and , in fact, was one of the main points of no one, damn it, there they are born, move away from the place of birth because new portions arrive there. since there is nowhere to go, they e sink into subduction zones. well, the largest, longest induction zones around the pacific ocean. this so-called pacific ring is actually from all sides, except for the south, the pacific ocean and is loaded with ship zones. this is the pacific plate. it goes deep there. yes, well, not only the pacific, but the biggest aha, all these plates that make up the pacific ocean go deep into each other, while they interact with neighboring plates and there are these outrages that you mentioned at the beginning and volcanism occurs due to the heating of interaction and

melting and an earthquake. and we even have maps that show it. yes, there is a map, uh, that could show that. uh, on the left , the location of the main sources of earthquakes, and on the surface of the earth well, in projection, for example , on the surface of the earth is called the epicenter and in fact, these earthquake sources draw boundaries. that is, of course, we learned about where the plates are outrageous. uh, collecting earthquake statistics. uh, well partly partly to a large extent, yes and uh and volcanoes. here on the right are shown both active active volcanoes and e, holocene ones. well, that is the previous one. physiological stages on a relatively short geological scale, they are also mostly concentrated along the boundaries of plates. please tell me why they do not calm down? why is this going on? which

what is the energy source? and why hasn't it ended yet? what is a perpetual motion machine? eh, the engine is not eternal at all. uh, but as long as the energy is there, uh, the earth works like a heat engine. it means that inside it is hot on the surface it is cold and somehow according to the laws. ah, thermodynamics. this heat needs to be removed. she comes out roughly from the food. i have to imagine so no no , not only yes, yes, that is, that's all that went wrong radiogenic sources are distributed both in the mantle in korea and in the core too, but simply with surface, as naturally the earth cools from the surface, and in the depths it is even hotter. well, as long as it's hot enough. ah, the transfer of energy, uh, it goes like this , it's a subtle, well, not a subtle question. this means that since we can transfer it to ourselves by means of radiation, thermal conductivity and convection, convection is when the pieces actually move the substance and

drags the heat with them, the material from which the earth a is made and its conditions in terms of pressure temperature are such that the substance of most of it earth is capable of convection. show, uh, watermelon slides. here is a simplified structure of the earth from above the crust. uh, then here, the same lithosphere and the mantle, and the core, which means the core is the hottest part of the earth, the mantle, e colder, but it is the convective movement in the mantle, according to modern concepts, that provides, well, the variety of tectonic ones. the process in which we are observing can be a very rough everyday analogy, that is, the earth boils inside, but on the surface, so that it doesn’t boil, it’s not very good. correct me, i'm not boiling, but she transmits, uh, the heat that is supplied from below,

well, especially in the mantle of help. here are such convective movements, after all, convection is not boiling. yep boiling out of gas. a hmm yes, thank you, thank you. yes, and it won't end. this is not over yet, 4.5 billion years has been going on and i should look at it differently, that we are lucky that, in general, the upper layer is still quite cold and it has been quite a few years. naturally. well, that's pretty natural, because, well, it's got to get cold outside. although, of course, it is also a question of cooling . where to cool down if it does not conduct outer space there, well, only radiation. and in the sense of geology, we were lucky. e, in the sense that there is enough energy and now for those processes to continue. well, we have near at hand now, and at hand almost neighboring planets are already at hand. well, first of all the moon mars venus yes, they are made from about the same it is the so called terrestrial planet. well, mercury

belongs there, that is, they are made of the same substance, mainly silicates. well, iron. well, their tectonics are different, because they have a different sizes and b e they have. well if we take venus there, different atmospheres, this is all essential for geologists. and if they compare it with this picture, then here is the lower part of the cone there is the same core, probably, yes, well, almost everyone has a core. yes, uh, then maybe, i don't know, everyone has a robe, except uh. well, not that, yes, yes, all these have further. we got lucky in a way, but the rest of us no well , not so lucky, and they were all when hot uh-huh, maybe melted we wear softened just like the earth and the same, like the earth, they cool down, if the planet is small or the satellite of the moon or mars, it has cooled down and simply because of this there is already a tectonic process. they don't go like that, they go somehow. there's

more, slow motion. uh, slabs means that i learned that the slab is not at all identical to the mainland is not identical. at the same time, on the other hand. see what's in my head that doesn't agree. uh, if i understand correctly, the continents shifted from time to time , forming almost one dried land on earth, then divided again and did this apparently several times in the history of the earth, well considered. yes, it's called a supercontinent. yes , four supercontinents stand out, more or less justifiably proved four times supercontinents. here and here. there would be no peace in this cop. no, they shared again. what is this story? why did this happen and how are the continents, how reasoning about the history of the earth in terms of continents is connected with reasoning in terms of plates, if you tell me that these are different things, apparently the original continents,

there was no wow on earth. oh wow that is wow modern representations of such first was silicates. well, actually, the fact that the mantle was smelted from the hot mantle was what formed, then the oceanic mountain of basalt. oh, and gagra a and that's what created it. the first plates were actually pure oceanic ones. and then and from the dynamics and interaction of oceanic plates arose. uh, what forms the continental plates, what distinguishes the continental karat, the oceanic one also has the so-called granite period, it is not initially formed. he's smelted as a result of well of basalts during the melting of basalt granite layer. outside, like the second. yes, it is secondary precisely because it is secondary and it is from above, that is, thank you very much that it so happened that we were welded onto at least three

earthly surfaces. yes, it happened gradually, yes, but the question is. how this happened is also debatable, or because everything was very hot and straight from the oceanic crust. it melted from unmelted acidic rocks. basalt eyes. this one point of view scolds the point of view popular just in within the framework of plate tectonics, which is in subduction zones. the basalt crust, plunging, melted from it , granite was carried out and from itself, leaving the citizen. yes, well here's what we see volcanism in chest zones. this is just production. well, in particular , including acid rocks, from which the continental chamber then develops. i understand correctly that, in principle, you can imagine, from the point of view of what you know about plate tectonics e, you are able to imagine a planet in which there is only oceanic crust, but are you capable of imagine planets in which there are only no continents. yes, no, no, no, this is

if a supercontinent forms, that is, it covers. yes and since a significant part of the earth's surface, then the internal process in the mantle is convection, and it begins to tear, that is, the supercontinent forms a cover. he hinders. uh, heat dissipation. the system overheats, the lid bursts and together a new ocean is formed again with expansion with a new oceanic crust, and everything starts anew. well an example of such tearing is now to be added to the red sea. it going on there? yes, this is happening now. that's about the process that i described, it means that africa and eurasia were together, and now a red sea rift is being formed. it has already actually formed and a new young oceanic crust is being formed there, which pushes back and how many years ago it was not there. well, a few million years ago. i now

do not understand at all, yes, the first million is the first million years. yes, maybe 10, no more, a supercontinent. now you have answered my question. it is an unstable structure and because of this overheating. there's a long run, even in geologically unstable ones. but in general, it can exist there for tens to hundreds of millions of years, so to speak, please, we live. here we are now on the eurasian plate. we live in europe, it's so big. but why? it won't overheat, inside it won't split in half, it will probably overheat, by the way, in the middle. the brazilian plate has lake baikal, which may appear to be a well -rift structure, that is, it is exactly rift-like, it is moving apart. and perhaps there to be born something that will eventually become an ocean. here is the deepest freshwater lake in time, perhaps will become the ocean. how do we how do we know that there is something there, is it a rift? uh, well, there is simply a measurement

that the different sides of lake baikal diverge, in addition, an earthquake testifies to this, and by studying the sources of earthquakes, one can judge how directed the forces that generate these earthquakes. so there they are directed, pushing different bots according to the nature of earthquakes. we can learn about stress direction inward. yes, yes, this is one of the methods for determining the stress state is amazing. it's amazing how many people have come up with just how we are ready to use anything. please tell me, uh, since it's been mentioned, what kind of character? speeds, for example, are the movement of europe from north america, and even now it is impossible not to ask. uh, is it the separation of the two shores of lake baikal, uh, well, the characteristic speed is 1 cm per year. well, nothing like that, well, this is on average, if you take there are slow plates, but let's say there, uh, african

plate. it is slow but fast what is the fastest fastest plate is indo australian. there it reaches 10 even 12 cm per year. by the way, how the laser is literally measured. yes, literally laser. so there are several of these methods here on one slide, at the top left is the speed measured by the geological method over the course. um, well, a few million years, first of all, flight. how fast did different plates move during the last geological time? directly the art of reading speeds and studying stones, beating them with a hammer and analyzing what is there inside them yes determine there the direction of the ancient magnetic field and a completely independent method that exists now. uh, besides that, here's a gps or glonass. besides

that, it allows us to navigate and allowed me to walk here to your studio. it's very widely used in tectonics /geodynamics because it allows you to measure how the plates are moving right now. great , this is a slide. uh, the picture, which is at the bottom right, uh, and it allows you to see that these two methods are completely different and do not intersect in any way, so to speak, with that material and method, which is used, but nevertheless. they give quite a good, frankly, applause to the geological method , even though it's not a very straight forward thing. it's pretty indirect. on the magnetic field in which epochs you should both date and determine the direction of the magnetic field and everywhere possible, errors and so on. yes, well , these data diverge there in the zones of active interaction, but in general they converge very well. that is , it shows us that this movement is inherited, that is, it exists, not only now, but also

quite a long biological time. what other manifestations of plate movement. here we are, er, noticing or potentially noticing the sensitivity to noticing and so on volcanoes. let's sum up, of course, this is the first thing that we see. this is these. uh, and the earthquake is extraordinary unpleasant for us. as for people, especially those who live in the seismic danger zone there, but extremely important for geologists as scientists, because they tell us, well, first. uh, how what's moving, where's the zone most active interactions a. secondly, these earthquakes serve as those sources of those seismic rays, with the help of which we shine through the earth naturally, and the source and, accordingly, receive well , most of the information about the internal structure

of the earth, that is, thanks to earthquakes. if they were not, we would not know from the internal structure of the earth as we know it. now these are shocks and sound waves traveling along the earth, and because they resonate in different parts of the earth. this is truly a global picture. we are able to reconstruct. what is situated inside quite right, but the influence of this history of tectonics, plates on the evolution of the earth. in general, maybe even for the development of life on earth in your opinion. what can be worth comparing the earth with the planets, where is this? no, i don't know. ognili, this is a correct and very relevant question. there is an opinion that in general life and plate tectonics are quite closely related. uh, i would participate, as it turns out, yes, well, first of all, water plays a huge role in plate tectonics. uh, it's really not a product of life, but if it wasn't for

free-form water, tectonics would look like completely different from everything that you explained to me about the mechanism of movement of the plates, there was no place at all in the water. it's a completely different story. and here is the water? and just the presence of water provides a lot of what allows it to move. well, they don’t swim at all, they don’t direct at all not on water, but on the mantle, but in the upper part of the mantle, there is a weakened layer, which is called the asthenosphere. well, that is, the weakened layer, the viscosity of which is lower than what lies below and what lies above and it is precisely in this asthenosphere that plates move, which are more rigid ah, in fact, like oil in e. well, some lubrication arrangements. yes, and so here are the mechanisms for lowering the viscosity of the atmosphere, why is it more e connected? well, firstly, with an increase in temperature. and perhaps with the presence of some proportion of water. here

are the very first even fractions of a percent, and the water in the rocks and e-e, on the one hand, reduces the viscosity by itself, on the other hand, it lowers the melting point. something also lowers the top, so the water is extremely important in this sense, in addition, the water that enters the subduction zone along with the oceanic crust. provides again uh, facilitation of melting , hence more active volcanism, and hence more active melting of new water, including continental a, participates, how to put it mildly, in the water cycle. in nature, rain is not limited to outflow. there are rivers. the seas in the sea and the ocean are much more interesting, and in relation to life on earth, in relation to life on earth, and carbon and since our life is a significant network built on carbon, the carbon that remains, uh, as, well

the end product of the decomposition of living organisms also enters the subduction zone to a large extent and participates in this carbon cycle. uh, also uh, stimulating uh, including smelting of the continental crust. that is, it is very important on the one hand on the other hand. volcanic activity produces a large amount of carbon dioxide, on which the e lives, our green green shell produces oxygen for us. i mean, it's all connected . and what, here is the geo bill of this commonwealth community - this is an important thing. and now there are international projects doing this. i would like to say directly that looking at any other planet. i would like to think that it is enough to take out one of the links of this and nothing will come of this picture, but it will. another picture another picture another picture, well , first of all, uh, i already said that the smaller planets, like mars, which had the

same potential and had, most likely, atmospheres. well, that is, there and now there is a denser atmosphere and, most likely, they had water, they cooled down and, accordingly, all this activity has died down in two different senses there is no open water. this is the first and second. it's just that the banthia has become more solid. there is no possibility. yep, venus is the opposite. it has a very dense atmosphere. which is made up of greenhouse gases that create a huge monstrous greenhouse effect, the surface temperature of venus there is approaching 600° 58 something, respectively. it is impossible there, and the formation of rigid plates is too hot . the substance the atmosphere affects the influence, not giving formations, so there is tectonics there. active, but it does not form slabs of slabs there. because of the temperature and , accordingly, mechanical, well, or you can say the rheological properties, and the planets on

which we live, it turns out, as i now found out. here is one from some amazing combination of rather subtle factors. yep , the distance from the sun is the size. uh, the presence of water , the origin of water is also a debatable question, where does it come from geological activity and or is it brought by meteorites? yes, this is an unresolved issue , but from everything living on earth. thanks a lot geotectonics. and you big thanks for the interesting story. all the best, goodbye.

in ukraine, explosions rattle the air raid siren early in the morning, the local press reported a detonation in the cherkasy region, the same information was received for the knees. in kiev, this is the data of the authorities before that it became known about explosions in the dnipropetrovsk region in the area where the mayskaya airfield is located, such reports are coming. for the time being, the city of zaporozhye, still controlled by the kiev regime, air raid alerts have been announced in all regions of ukraine without exception, russian troops have begun strike.