dr. kandel: well, outline -- charlie: what do we explore? dr. ndel: you outlined it so well, and the last program, we considered competitive sports among young people, and we realized, of course, that in competitive athletics, kids fall down or get pushed down, and sometimes, they suffer concussions as a result of this, in which the brain bashes up against the rigid skull, potentially causing damage to the brain. today, we are going to see the astonishing fact that you referred to that you can get similar, and in some cases more severe, damage to the brain without altering the position of the brain in the skull, the result of early social and psychological adversities, such as parental abuse, parental neglect, poverty, or bullying. some children who have been brought up in an environment in which they don't have appropriate intellectual stimulation, appropriate bonding with parents actually have pathways that don't develop in the brain, and the hippocampus, the structure critical for cognitive function and for memory, may not reach its normal siz